Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers

Dr.Ing.habil Ulrich L. Rohde, is a Professor of Technical Informatics, University of the Joint Armed Forces, Munich Germany; member of the staff of other Universities world-wide; partner of Rohde & Schwarz, Munich; and Chairman of the Board of Synergy Microwave Corporation. Formerly Professor of Electrical Engineering at George Washington University and the University of Florida, Dr. Rohde has consulted on numerous communication projects in industry and government, has more than 300 publications, and written many textbooks including this one. He is the author of the first edition of Microwave and Wireless Synthesizers: Theory and Design.Enrico Rubiola, PhD, is Professor at the Université de Franche Comté (The University of Franche-Comté), Researcher at the Department of Time and Frequency of the CNRS FEMTO-ST Institute, France, and Associated Researcher at INRiM, Italy’s National Metrology Institute (NMI). He is Founder the Oscillator IMP project, a platform for the measurement of short-term frequency stability and AM/PM noise of oscillators and related components.Jerry Whitaker is Vice President for Standards Development of the Advanced Television Systems Committee. He also serves as Secretary of the Technology Group on Next Generation Broadcast Television, and is closely involved in work relating to educational programs. He is a Fellow and previous Vice President of the Society of Broadcast Engineers, and a Life Fellow of the Society of Motion Picture and Television Engineers.

• Author Biography xiiPreface xviImportant Notations xx1 Loop Fundamentals 11-1 Introduction to Linear Loops 11-2 Characteristics of a Loop 31-3 Digital Loops 71-4 Type 1 First-Order Loop 101-5 Type 1 Second-Order Loop 121-6 Type 2 Second-Order Loop 201-6-1 Transient Behavior of Digital Loops Using Tri-state Phase Detectors 221-7 Type 2 Third-Order Loop 271-7-1 Transfer Function of Type 2 Third-Order Loop 281-7-2 FM Noise Suppression 351-8 Higher-Order Loops 361-8-1 Fifth-Order Loop Transient Response 361-9 Digital Loops with Mixers 401-10 Acquisition 44Example 1 481-10-1 Pull-in Performance of the Digital Loop 491-10-2 Coarse Steering of the VCO as an Acquisition Aid 521-10-3 Loop Stability 54References 62Suggested Reading 622 Almost all About Phase Noise 652-1 Introduction to Phase Noise 652-1-1 The Clock Signal 652-1-2 The Power Spectral Density (PSD) 682-1-3 Basics of Noise 712-1-4 Phase and Frequency Noise 782-2 The Allan Variance and Other Two-Sample Variances 882-2-1 Frequency Counters 892-2-2 The Two-Sample Variances AVAR, MVAR, and PVAR 942-2-3 Conversion from Spectra to Two-Sample Variances 962-3 Phase Noise in Components 1002-3-1 Amplifiers 1002-3-2 Frequency Dividers 1042-3-3 Frequency Multipliers 1122-3-4 Direct Digital Synthesizer (DDS) 1172-3-5 Phase Detectors 1282-3-6 Noise Contribution from Power Supplies 1322-4 Phase Noise in Oscillators 1332-4-1 Modern View of the Leeson Model 1342-4-2 Circumventing the Resonator’s Thermal Noise 1442-4-3 Oscillator Hacking 1462-5 The Measurement of Phase Noise 1532-5-1 Double-Balanced Mixer Instruments 1542-5-2 The Cross-Spectrum Method 1662-5-3 Digital Instruments 1712-5-4 Pitfalls and Limitations of the Cross-Spectrum Measurements 1802-5-5 The Bridge (Interferometric) Method 1872-5-6 Artifacts and Oddities Often Found in the Real World 190References 193Suggested Readings 1973 Special Loops 2013-1 Introduction 2013-2 Direct Digital Synthesis Techniques 2013-2-1 A First Look at Fractional N 2023-2-2 Digital Waveform Synthesizers 2033-2-3 Signal Quality 2203-2-4 Future Prospects 2353-3 Loops with Delay Line as Phase Comparators 2363-4 Fractional Division N Synthesizers 2373-4-1 Example Implementation 2403-4-2 Some Special Past Patents for Fractional Division N Synthesizers 253References 255Bibliography 256Fractional Division N Readings 2564 Loop Components 2594-1 Introduction to Oscillators and Their Mathematical Treatment 2594-2 The Colpitts Oscillator 2594-2-1 Linear Approach 2604-2-2 Design Example for a 350MHz Fixed-Frequency Colpitts Oscillator 2694-2-3 Validation Circuits 2824-2-4 Series Feedback Oscillator 3144-2-5 2400 MHz MOSFET-Based Push–Pull Oscillator 3194-2-6 Oscillators for IC Applications 3364-2-7 Noise in Semiconductors and Circuits 3374-2-8 Summary 3394-3 Use of Tuning Diodes 3394-3-1 Diode Tuned Resonant Circuits 3404-3-2 Practical Circuits 3444-4 Use of Diode Switches 3454-4-1 Diode Switches for Electronic Band Selection 3464-4-2 Use of Diodes for Frequency Multiplication 3474-5 Reference Frequency Standards 3514-5-1 Specifying Oscillators 3514-5-2 Typical Examples of Crystal Oscillator Specifications 3524-6 Mixer Applications 3544-7 Phase/Frequency Comparators 3574-7-1 Diode Rings 3574-7-2 Exclusive ORs 3584-7-3 Sample/Hold Detectors 3624-7-4 Edge-Triggered JK Master/Slave Flip-Flops 3684-7-5 Digital Tri-State Comparators 3694-8 Wideband High-Gain Amplifiers 3784-8-1 Summation Amplifiers 3784-8-2 Differential Limiters 3824-8-3 Isolation Amplifiers 3824-8-4 Example Implementations 3874-9 Programmable Dividers 3934-9-1 Asynchronous Counters 3934-9-2 Programmable Synchronous Up-/Down-Counters 3944-9-3 Advanced Implementation Example 4054-9-4 Swallow Counters/Dual-Modulus Counters 4074-9-5 Look-Ahead and Delay Compensation 4114-10 Loop Filters 4214-10-1 Passive RC Filters 4214-10-2 Active RC Filters 4224-10-3 Active Second-Order Low-Pass Filters 4234-10-4 Passive LC Filters 4264-10-5 Spur-Suppression Techniques 4274-11 Microwave Oscillator Design 4304-11-1 The Compressed Smith Chart 4324-11-2 Series or Parallel Resonance 4344-11-3 Two-Port Oscillator Design 4354-12 Microwave Resonators 4444-12-1 SAW Oscillators 4454-12-2 Dielectric Resonators 4454-12-3 YIG Oscillators 4484-12-4 Varactor Resonators 4524-12-5 Ceramic Resonators 455References 461Suggested Readings 4645 Digital PLL Synthesizers 4715-1 Multiloop Synthesizers Using Different Techniques 4715-1-1 Direct Frequency Synthesis 4715-1-2 Multiple Loops 4735-2 System Analysis 4775-3 Low-Noise Microwave Synthesizers 4845-3-1 Building Blocks 4855-3-2 Output Loop Response 4895-3-3 Low Phase Noise References: Frequency Standards 4905-3-4 Critical Stage 4935-3-5 Time Domain Analysis 5035-3-6 Summary 5085-3-7 Two Commercial Synthesizer Examples 5125-4 Microprocessor Applications in Synthesizers 5185-5 Transceiver Applications 5235-6 About Bits, Symbols, and Waveforms 5265-6-1 Representation of a Modulated RF Carrier 5275-6-2 Generation of the Modulated Carrier 5295-6-3 Putting It all Together 5335-6-4 Combination of Techniques 535Acknowledgments 537References 540Bibliography and Suggested Reading 5406 A High-Performance Hybrid Synthesizer 5436-1 Introduction 5436-2 Basic Synthesizer Approach 5446-3 Loop Filter Design 5486-4 Summary 556Bibliography 557A Mathematical Review 559A-1 Functions of a Complex Variable 559A-2 Complex Planes 561A-2-1 Functions in the Complex Frequency Plane 565A-3 Bode Diagram 568A-4 Laplace Transform 582A-4-1 The Step Function 583A-4-2 The Ramp 584A-4-3 Linearity Theorem 584A-4-4 Differentiation and Integration 585A-4-5 Initial Value Theorem 585A-4-6 Final Value Theorem 585A-4-7 The Active Integrator 585A-4-8 Locking Behavior of the PLL 587A-5 Low-Noise Oscillator Design 590A-5-1 Example Implementation 590A-6 Oscillator Amplitude Stabilization 594A-7 Very Low Phase Noise VCO for 800 MHZ 602References 605B A General-Purpose Nonlinear Approach to the Computation of Sideband Phase Noise in Free-Running Microwave and RF Oscillators 607B-1 Introduction 607B-2 Noise Generation in Oscillators 608B-3 Bias-Dependent Noise Model 609B-3-1 Bias-Dependent Model 617B-3-2 Derivation of the Model 617B-4 General Concept of Noisy Circuits 619B-4-1 Noise from Linear Elements 620B-5 Noise Figure of Mixer Circuits 622B-6 Oscillator Noise Analysis 624B-7 Limitations of the Frequency-Conversion Approach 625B-7-1 Assumptions 626B-7-2 Conversion and Modulation Noise 626B-7-3 Properties of Modulation Noise 626B-7-4 Noise Analysis of Autonomous Circuits 627B-7-5 Conversion Noise Analysis Results 627B-7-6 Modulation Noise Analysis Results 627B-8 Summary of the Phase Noise Spectrum of the Oscillator 628B-9 Verification Examples for the Calculation of Phase Noise in Oscillators Using Nonlinear Techniques 628B-9-1 Example 1: High-Q Case Microstrip DRO 628B-9-2 Example 2: 10 MHz Crystal Oscillator 629B-9-3 Example 3: The 1-GHz Ceramic Resonator VCO 630B-9-4 Example 4: Low Phase Noise FET Oscillator 632B-9-5 Example 5: Millimeter-Wave Applications 636B-9-6 Example 6: Discriminator Stabilized DRO 639B-10 Summary 641References 643C Example of Wireless Synthesizers Using Commercial ICs 645D MMIC-Based Synthesizers 665D-1 Introduction 665Bibliography 668E Articles on Design of Dielectric Resonator Oscillator 671E-1 The Design of an Ultra-Low Phase Noise DRO 671E-1-1 Basic Considerations and Component Selection 671E-1-2 Component Selection 672E-1-3 DRO Topologies 675E-1-4 Small Signal Design Approach for the Parallel Feedback Type DRO 677E-1-5 Simulated Versus Measured Results 683E-1-6 Physical Embodiment 685E-1-7 Acknowledgments 685E-1-8 Final Remarks 688References 692Bibliography 692E-2 A Novel Oscillator Design with Metamaterial-MöBius Coupling to a Dielectric Resonator 692E-2-1 Abstract 692E-2-2 Introduction 693References 699F Opto-Electronically Stabilized RF Oscillators 701F-1 Introduction 701F-1-1 Oscillator Basics 701F-1-2 Resonator Technologies 701F-1-3 Motivation for OEO 704F-1-4 Operation Principle of the OEO 704F-2 Experimental Evaluation and Thermal Stability of OEO 705F-2-1 Experimental Setup 705F-2-2 Phase Noise Measurements 708F-2-3 Thermal Sensitivity Analysis of Standard Fibers 709F-2-4 Temperature Sensitivity Measurements 710F-2-5 Temperature Sensitivity Improvement with HC-PCF 712F-2-6 Improve Thermal Stability Versus Phase Noise Degradation 712F-2-7 Passive Temperature Compensation 713F-2-8 Improving Effective Q with Raman Amplification 714F-3 Forced Oscillation Techniques of OEO 718F-3-1 Analysis of Standard Injection-Locked (IL) Oscillators 718F-3-2 Analysis of Self-Injection Locked (SIL) Oscillators 720F-3-3 Experimental Verification of Self-Injection Locked (SIL) Oscillators 721F-3-4 Analysis of Standard Phase Locked Loop (PLL) Oscillators 723F-3-5 Analysis of Self Phase Locked Loop (SPLL) Oscillators 725F-3-6 Experimental Verification of Self-Phase Locked Loop (SPLL) Oscillators 726F-3-7 Analysis of Self-Injection Locked Phase Locked Loop (SILPLL) Oscillators 728F-4 SILPLL Based X- and K-Band Frequency Synthesizers 731F-4-1 X-Band Frequency Synthesizer 732F-4-2 19′′Rack-Mountable K-Band Frequency Synthesizer 737F-5 Integrated OEO Realization Using Si-Photonics 742F-6 Compact OEO Using InP Multi-Mode Semiconductor Laser 744F-6-1 Structure of Multi-mode InP Laser 744F-6-2 Multi-mode Laser and Inter-Modal RF Oscillation 745F-6-3 Self-Forced Frequency Stabilizations 747F-7 Discussions 752Acknowledgments 753References 754G Phase Noise Analysis, then and Today 761G-1 Introduction 761G-2 Large-Signal Noise Analysis 762References 769H A Novel Approach to Frequency and Phase Settling Time Measurements on PLL Circuits 771H-1 Introduction 771H-2 Settling Time Measurement Overview 771H-2-1 Theoretical Background of Frequency Settling Time 771H-2-2 Frequency Settling Measurement in the Past 772H-3 R&S FSWP Phase Noise Analyzer 774H-3-1 Phase Noise Analyzer Architecture 774H-3-2 Typical Test Setup for Settling Time Measurements 776H-4 Frequency Hopping and Settling Time Measurements in Practice 776H-4-1 Trigger on Wideband Frequency Hopping Signals 776H-4-2 Frequency and Phase Settling Time Measurement 777H-5 Conclusion 780Index 783