Microplastics in Urban Water Management

Bing-Jie Ni, PhD, is a Full Professor of the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Australia. Qiuxiang Xu, PhD, is currently a Senior Research Fellow in the Department of Environmental Engineering, College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, China. Wei Wei, PhD, is currently an Australian Research Council (ARC) DECRA Fellow & Lecturer at the School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, Australia

• Notes of Contributors xiiiPreface xvii1 Techniques for Microplastics Detection in Urban Water Systems 1Xiaowei Li, Man Li, Lulu Liu, and Xiang Huang1.1 Introduction 11.2 Sample Collection and Separation 11.2.1 Freshwater Samples 11.2.2 Freshwater Sediments 51.2.3 Wastewater Samples 91.2.4 Sludge Samples 121.2.5 Drinking Water Samples 141.3 Sample Purification 161.3.1 Wet Peroxidation 161.3.2 Enzymatic Degradation 171.3.3 Alkaline and Acid Treatment 181.3.4 Influence of Chemical Purification on Microplastic Property 201.4 Sample Identification 251.4.1 Visual Identification 251.4.2 Microscopic Identification 261.4.3 Spectroscopic Identification 271.4.4 Thermal Analysis 291.5 Quantitative Analysis 321.5.1 LD Method 331.5.2 DLS Method 341.5.3 NTA Method 341.5.4 Challenges in Particle Size Analysis 351.6 Quality Control 361.6.1 Internal Deviation 361.6.2 Judgment Error 371.7 Summary and Future Outlooks 37References 372 Occurrence and Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 53Junyeol Kim, Yongli Z. Wager, Carol Miller, and John Norton2.1 Introduction 532.2 What Are Microplastics? 552.2.1 Primary and Secondary Microplastics 562.3 The Emergence of Microplastic 572.3.1 Sources 572.3.2 Transformation 592.4 Occurrence of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 612.4.1 Abundance 612.4.2 Distribution 642.4.2.1 Size Distribution 652.4.2.2 Morphological Distribution 662.4.3 Composition 672.5 Removal of Microplastics in Drinking Water Systems 682.5.1 Water Treatment Plant 692.5.1.1 Removal of Microplastics by the Overall Process of Water Treatment 692.5.1.2 Removal Rate of Microplastics Depending on the Size 702.5.1.3 Removal Rate Depending on the Type of Microplastics 732.5.1.4 Removal Efficiency Depending on the Composition of Microplastics 742.5.1.5 Removal of Microplastics by Coagulation, Flocculation, and Sedimentation 752.5.1.6 Removal of Microplastics by Filtration 762.5.1.7 Removal of Microplastics by Ozonation 772.5.2 Microplastic Removal in Lab-scale Studies 782.6 Summary and Prospects 80References 823 Occurrence of Microplastics in Wastewater Treatment Plants 91Kang Song and Lu li3.1 Introduction 913.2 The Abundance and Removal Performance of Microplastics in WWTPs 923.3 The Microplastics Composition in WWTPs 1023.3.1 Microplastics Size Distribution 1023.3.2 Microplastic Shapes 1033.3.3 Microplastic Materials 1043.3.4 Microplastic Color 1053.4 Removal of Microplastics in WWTPs and Contribution of Each Process 1063.4.1 Primary Treatment 1063.4.2 Secondary Treatment 1083.4.3 Tertiary Treatment 1083.5 Summary and Future Outlooks 109References 1104 Effects of Microplastics on Wastewater Treatment Processes 119Yan Laam Cheng, Tsz Ching Tse, Ziying Li, Yuguang Wang, and Yiu Fai Tsang4.1 Biological Treatment Processes 1194.1.1 Conventional Unit Operations and Processes 1194.1.1.1 Suspended-Growth Processes 1204.1.1.2 Attached-Growth Processes 1224.1.1.3 Advanced Wastewater Treatment Processes 1224.2 Interactions Between Sludge and Microplastics 1234.2.1 Activated Sludge 1264.2.2 Aerobic Granular Sludge 1264.2.3 Anaerobic Granular Sludge 1274.3 Effects of Microplastics on Microorganisms and Key Enzymes 1284.3.1 Heterotrophic Bacteria 1284.3.2 Ammonia-Oxidizing Bacteria 1294.3.3 Nitrite-Oxidizing Bacteria 1324.3.4 Key Enzymes 1324.4 Effects on Sludge Stabilization and Dewatering 1344.4.1 Aerobic Digestion 1344.4.2 Dewatering 1364.5 Perspectives 1374.6 Conclusion 139Acknowledgments 140References 1405 Microplastics in Sewage Sludge of Wastewater Treatment 147Wei Wei, Xingdong Shi, Yu-Ting Zhang, Chen Wang, Yun Wang, and Bing-Jie Ni5.1 Introduction 1475.2 Occurrence 1495.2.1 Primary Sludge 1505.2.2 Waste-Activated Sludge 1525.2.3 Dewatered Sludge 1535.3 Effects of Microplastics on Sludge Anaerobic Treatment 1555.3.1 Methane 1555.3.2 Short-Chain Fatty Acid 1565.3.3 Hydrogen 1585.3.4 Enzyme Activity 1585.3.5 Microbial Community 1595.4 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil and Landfills 1605.4.1 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Soil 1605.4.2 Transport of Microplastics from Sludge to Landfills 1625.5 Enhanced Removal of Microplastics from Sludge 1625.5.1 Thickening and Dehydration 1625.5.2 Anaerobic Digestion 1635.5.3 High Temperature Composting 1635.5.4 Incineration 1645.6 Summary and Outlook 165References 1666 Discharge of Microplastics from Wastewater Treatment Plants 175Hongbo Chen and Yi Wu6.1 Introduction 1756.2 Microplastics Concentrations in Effluent of WWTPs 1766.2.1 Concentration of Microplastics in Effluent 1766.2.2 Types of Microplastics in Effluent 1766.3 Important Source of the Receiving Waters 1796.3.1 River 1806.3.2 Lake 1826.3.3 Sea 1846.3.3.1 Microplastics on Beaches and Coastal Areas 1866.3.3.2 Microplastics on the Surface of Ocean Water 1866.3.3.3 Microplastic Pollution in Polar Regions 1866.3.4 Sediments 1886.4 Uptake of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms 1936.4.1 Freshwater Organisms 1936.4.2 Marine Life 1956.4.3 Soil and Crops 1976.5 Conclusions and Considerations for Future Work 1986.5.1 Conclusions 1986.5.2 Considerations for Future Work 199Acknowledgments 199References 1997 Microplastics Removal and Degradation in Urban Water Systems 211Qiuxiang Xu and Bing-Jie Ni7.1 Introduction 2117.2 Use of Separation-based Technology for the Removal of MPs 2157.2.1 CFS 2157.2.2 Electrocoagulation 2197.2.3 Filtration 2217.2.4 Membrane Separation 2227.2.5 Adsorption 2237.3 Photocatalysis Degradation of Microplastics 2257.3.1 Zinc Oxide-based Photocatalysis 2267.3.2 Titanium Dioxide-based Photocatalysis 2277.3.3 Bismuth-based Photocatalysis 2297.4 Chemical Oxidation Degradation of Microplastics 2297.5 Future Prospects 231References 2328 Microplastics Contamination in Receiving Water Systems 243Muhammad Junaid and Jun Wang8.1 Introduction 2438.2 Occurrence of Microplastics in Freshwater Resources 2478.2.1 River Surface Waters 2478.2.2 Lake Surface Waters 2488.3 Composition of Microplastics in Freshwater 2498.4 Factors Influencing the Aging of Microplastics 2518.5 Uptake and Associated Ecological Impacts of Microplastics in Aquatic Organisms 2518.5.1 Invertebrates 2518.5.2 Waterbirds 2538.5.3 Mammals and Megafauna 2548.6 Interactions among Microplastics and Microbes (Bacteria) 2568.6.1 Microplastic Biofilms: Formation Mechanisms and Characteristics 2568.6.2 Factors Affecting Biofilm Formation 2578.6.3 Role of Microplastic Biofilms in Genetic Material Transfer 2588.6.4 Microplastics as Pathogen Carriers 2608.7 Potential Interactions between Microplastics and Humans 2608.7.1 Dietary Exposure 2608.7.2 Exposure through Inhalation and Dermal Contact 2638.7.3 Microplastics’ Toxicity in Humans 2648.8 Implications and Suggestions 266Acknowledgments 267References 2689 Effects of Microplastics on Algae in Receiving Waters 287Dongbo Wang, Qizi Fu, Xuemei Li, and Xuran Liu9.1 Introduction 2879.2 MPs Induced Effect on the Algae: Growth and Populations 2899.2.1 Effects of MPs on Algae Growth 2899.2.2 Effects of MPs on Algae Populations 2929.3 Factors Affecting Toxicity 2939.3.1 Dosage 2939.3.2 Size 2959.3.3 Materials 2959.4 Combined Effects of MPs with Contaminants towards Algae 2969.4.1 Antibiotics 2979.4.2 Heavy Metals 3009.4.3 Other Emerging Contaminations 3019.5 Research Gap and Perspective 302References 30310 Effects of Microplastics on Aquatic Organisms in Receiving Waters 315Gabriela Kalčíková and Ula Rozman10.1 Introduction 31510.1.1 Occurrences in Water and Sediment 31610.1.2 The Concerns about Potential Ecological Risks 31810.2 Into the Food Chain of Aquatic Animals 31910.2.1 Accumulation 32010.2.2 Transfer within the Organizations 32110.3 Toxicity to Aquatic Organisms 32210.3.1 Decomposers 32210.3.2 Producers 32310.3.3 Consumers 32410.4 The Sources of Toxicity 32610.4.1 The Release of Plasticizers and Other Additives 32610.4.2 The Adsorbed Pollutants 32810.4.3 Physical Damage 32910.5 Summary and Outlook 330References 33111 Chemicals Associated with Microplastics in Urban Waters 345Yali Wang11.1 Introduction 34511.1.1 Chemicals in Microplastics and Its Fragments 34711.1.2 Chemical Additives in Plastic Consumer Products 35611.2 The Release of Chemicals from Microplastics and Environmental Levels 35811.2.1 Phthalic Acid Esters (PAEs) 35911.2.2 Bisphenol A 362References 36312 Interactions between Microplastics and Contaminants in Urban Waters 373Tianyi Luo, Xiaohu Dai, and Bing-Jie Ni12.1 Introduction 37412.2 Sorption of Contaminants on Microplastics 37512.2.1 Antibiotics 37612.2.2 Heavy Metals 37612.2.3 Organic Pollutants 38012.3 Enrichment of Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria and Antibiotic Resistance Genes 38312.3.1 Single Selection 38312.3.2 Co-Selection 38412.4 The Effects of Environmental Conditions 38612.4.1 pH 38612.4.2 Temperature 38612.4.3 Salinity 38812.4.4 Weathering/Aging Effect 38812.5 Joint Potential Risks 39012.5.1 For Contaminants Distribution in Aquatic Environment 39012.5.2 For ARGs and ARB Distribution in Aquatic Environment 39112.5.3 For Aquatic Organisms 39212.5.4 For Human Health 39312.6 Conclusion and Recommendations 395References 39613 Nanoplastics in Urban Waters: Recent Advances in the Knowledge Base 407Ilaria Corsi, Elisa Bergami, Ian J. Allan, and Julien Gigault13.1 Introduction 40713.2 Nanoplastics in the Aquatic Environment 40813.2.1 Nanoplastics or Polymeric Nanoparticles 40813.2.2 Formation Pathways of Nanoplastics 41013.2.3 Source of Nanoplastics 41113.2.4 The Behavior and Environmental Fate of Nanoplastics 41213.2.5 Interaction of Nanoplastics with Contaminants 41413.3 Interactions between Nanoplastics and Aquatic Organisms 41813.3.1 Effects on Aquatic Organisms: From Microalgae to Fish 41913.4 Ingestion of Nanoplastics in Aquatic Organisms 42713.5 Concluding Remarks and Future Recommendation 429Funding 430Acknowledgements 430Competing Interests 431References 431Index 445