Microplastics in the Ecosphere

Meththika Vithanage, PhD is a Professor and founding Director of the Ecosphere Resilience Research Centre, University of Sri Jayewardenepura, Sri Lanka. She holds adjunct professor positions in the UWA, Australia, UPES, India and NIFS, Sri Lanka. She has published more widely than any other environmental science researcher in Sri Lanka. She is a Highly Cited Researcher and publishes widely in the field of Environmental Science. Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, PhD is Emeritus Professor at the School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Hyderabad, India. He has decades of experience teaching and publishing on environmental science subjects, and his awards include the 2007 Pitamber Pant National Environment Fellowship by the Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, Government of India.

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxiiSection I Single Use Plastics 11 Scientometric Analysis of Microplastics across the Globe 3Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Fatma Nur Eraslan, Eftade O. Gaga, and Kadir Gedik1.1 Introduction 31.2 Materials and Methods 51.3 Results and Discussion 51.3.1 Trends in Scientific Production and Citations 51.3.2 Top Funding Agencies 61.3.3 Top 10 Global Affiliations 71.3.4 Top Countries 81.3.5 Top 10 Databases and Journals 91.3.6 Top 10 Published Articles 91.3.7 Top 10 Author Keywords and Research Areas 101.4 Conclusion 11Acknowledgments 12References 122 Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans – A Review 15Manju P. Nair and Anu Gopinath2.1 Introduction 152.1.1 Plastics 152.1.2 Plastic Pollution 152.1.3 Microplastics 162.1.4 Importance of Microplastic Pollution in the Polar Oceans 172.2 Polar Regions 172.2.1 General 172.2.2 Sea Ice 192.2.3 Water 192.2.4 Sediments 212.2.5 Biota 222.3 Future Perspectives 232.4 Conclusions 24References 243 Microplastics – Global Scenario 29Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad3.1 Introduction 293.2 Environmental Issues of Plastic Waste 543.3 Coprocessing of Plastic Waste in Cement Kilns 553.4 Disposal of Plastic Waste Through Plasma Pyrolysis Technology (PPT) 563.4.1 Merits of PPT 57References 594 The Single- Use Plastic Pandemic in the COVID- 19 Era 65Fatma Nur Eraslan, Mansoor Ahmad Bhat, Kadir Gedik, and Eftade O. Gaga4.1 Introduction 654.2 Materials and Methods 664.2.3 Estimation of the Daily Amount of Medical Waste in Hospitals 674.3.1 Personal Protective Equipment 674.3.2 Packaging SUPs 684.3.2.1 Trends in Plastic Waste Generation, Management, and Environmental Fate during the COVID- 19 Era 694.4.1 Environmental Impacts from SUP Waste 704.4.2 Management of SUP Waste 714.5 Conclusions and Future Prospects 72References 72Section II Microplastics in the Aerosphere 775 Atmospheric Microplastic Transport 79Yudith Vega Paramitadevi, Ana Turyanti, Ersa Rishanti, Beata Ratnawati, Bimastyaji Surya Ramadan, and Nurani Ikhlas5.1 The Phenomenon of Microplastic Transport 795.2 Factors Affecting Microplastic Transport 815.2.1 Types of MPs 815.2.2 Characteristics and Sources of Microplastics Emitters 815.2.3 Meteorological Conditions 825.2.4 Altitude and Surface Roughness 835.2.5 Microplastic Deposition Processes in the Ocean 835.2.6 Microplastics Deposition Processes in the Air 845.3 Microplastic Transport Modelling 855.3.1 Eulerian Method 87References 926 Microplastics in the Atmosphere and Their Human and Eco Risks 97Dhammika N. Magana- Arachchi and Rasika P. Wanigatunge6.1 Introduction 976.2 Microplastics in the Atmosphere 976.2.2 Chemical Composition 986.2.3 Sources of Microplastics 996.2.5 Effects of Climatic Conditions on MP Distribution 1016.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health and the Eco Risk 1026.3.2 Eco Risk 1066.4 Strategies to Minimise Atmospheric MPs through Future Research 1076.5 Conclusion 108Acknowledgements 109References 1097 Sampling and Detection of Microplastics in the Atmosphere 113Sudip Choudhury, Kuheli Deb, Saurav Paul, Bimal Bhusan Chakraborty, and Sunayana Goswami7.1 Introduction 1137.2 Classification 1147.3.4 Biota 1157.5 Detection and Characterisation of MPs in the Atmosphere 1167.5.1 Microscopic Techniques for Detecting MPs 1177.5.1.6 Hot Needle Technique 1197.5.1.7 Digital Holography 1197.5.2 Spectroscopic Techniques for Analysing MPs 1207.6 Conclusion 121Funding 121References 1218 Sources and Circulation of Microplastics in the Aerosphere – Atmospheric Transport of Microplastics 125Gobishankar Sathyamohan, Madushika Sewwandi, Balram Ambade, and Meththika Vithanage8.1 Introduction 1258.1.1 Occurrence and Abundance of Atmospheric MP 1268.1.2 Plastic Polymers and Their Properties 1278.1.3 Sources and Pathways of MPs in the Atmosphere 1298.2 Temporal and Spatial Trends in MP Accumulation 1308.3 Formation of MPs 1318.3.1 Physical Weathering 1328.3.4 Photo- thermal Oxidation 1338.3.5 Thermal Degradation 1348.4.1 Wet Deposition 1368.6 Predicting MP Dispersion and Transport 1378.7 Eco- Environmental Impacts 1388.8 Future Perspectives 139References 140Section III Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 1479 Interaction of Chemical Contaminants with Microplastics 149Asitha T. Cooray, Janitha Walpita, Pabasari A. Koliyabandara, and Ishara U. Soyza9.1 Introduction 1499.2 Interactions 1509.3 Mechanisms 1529.3.3 Kinetics of the Sorption Process 1549.3.5 Pseudo- Second- Order Model 1559.3.8 Isotherm Models 1569.5 Future Approaches 157References 15810 Microplastics in Freshwater Environments 163Florin- Constantin Mihai, Laura A.T. Markley, Farhan R. Khan, Giuseppe Suaria, and Sedat Gundogdu10.1 Introduction 16310.2 Microplastics in Rivers and Tributaries 16410.3 Microplastics in Lakes 16610.4 Microplastics in Groundwater Sources 16710.5 Microplastics in Glaciers and Ice Caps 16810.6 Microplastics in Deltas 16910.7 Conclusion 171Acknowledgment 171References 17111 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate: Flow and Transport 177Anna Kwarciak- Kozłowska11.1 Plastics and Microplastics 17711.2 Microplastics in Landfill Leachate 18011.3 Summary 183Acknowledgments 183References 18312 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment – Effects on Ocean Carbon Sequestration and Sustenance of Marine Life 189Arunima Bhattacharya and Aryadeep Roychoudhury12.1 Introduction 18912.2 Microplastics in the Aquatic Environment 19012.2.2.1 Chemical Nature 19112.3.2.1 Effect on Phytoplankton Photosynthesis and Growth 19212.3.2.2 Effect on Zooplankton Development and Reproduction 19312.4 Microplastics and Marine Fauna 19412.4.2.1 Shrimp 19512.4.4 Effects on Marine Mammals 19612.6 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 197Acknowledgments 197References 197Section IV Microplastics in Soil Systems 20113 Entry of Microplastics into Agroecosystems: A Serious Threat to Food Security and Human Health 203Siril Singh, Sheenu Sharma, Rajni Yadav, and Anand Narain Singh13.1 Introduction 20313.2 Sources of Microplastics in Agroecosystems 20413.2.3 Application of Sewage Sludge/Biosolids 20513.2.6 Landfill Sites 20613.3.2 Implications for Crop Plants and Food Security 20913.4 Human Health Risks 21113.5 Knowledge Gaps 21213.6 Conclusion and Future Recommendations 212Acknowledgments 213References 21314 Migration of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants to Soil and Their Effects 219Marta Jaskulak and Katarzyna Zorena14.1 Introduction 21914.2 Microplastics as Sorbing Materials for Hazardous Chemicals 22014.3 Types of Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils 22214.4 Effects of Exposure and Co- exposure in Soil – Consequences of Contaminant Sorption for MP Toxicity and Bioaccumulation 22314.5 Microplastic- Bound Contaminants in Soils as Potential Threats to Human Health 22414.6 Conclusions 226References 22615 Plastic Mulch- Derived Microplastics in Agricultural Soil Systems 233Sammani Ramanayaka, Hao Zhang, and Kirk T. Semple15.1 Plastic Mulch Films in Agriculture 23315.2 Types of Synthetic Polymer Mulch Films 23415.4 Mulch Microplastic Pollution in Soil 23515.4.1 Influences of Mulch Microplastics on Soil Physical Properties 23615.4.2.1 Soil Organic Matter (SOM) 23715.4.2.2 Soil pH 23815.4.3 The Impact of Microplastics on Soil Biological Properties 23915.5 Mulch Microplastics as a Vector 24015.6 Challenges and Future Perspectives 242References 24316 Critical Review of Microplastics in Soil 249Fábio C. Nunes, Lander de Jesus Alves, Cláudia C.N. de Carvalho, Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, and José R. de Souza Filho16.1 Introduction 24916.2 Sources and Transfer of Microplastics in Soils 25116.3 Classification, Qualification, and Quantification of Microplastics in Soil 25316.4 Effects and Risks of Microplastics on Soil Health 25516.5 Analytical Methodologies for Microplastics in Soil 25916.6 Epilogue and Future Perspectives 262Acknowledgment 262References 26217 What Do We Know About the Effects of Microplastics on Soil? 271Ana Paula Pinto, Teresa Ferreira, Ana V. Dordio, Alfredo Jorge Palace Carvalho, and Jorge M.S. Faria17.1 Introduction 27117.2 Why and How Do MPs End Up in the Soil? 27217.2.1 Mulching Films 27317.2.2 Sewage Sludge/Compost Application 27417.2.3 Irrigation 27517.4 Microplastics as Carriers of Soil Contaminants – Contaminant Vectors 27717.4.1 MPs as Carriers of Metals and/or Metalloids 27817.4.2 MPs as Carriers of Organic Pollutants 27917.5 Microplastic Effects 28017.5.2 MP Effects on Plant Growth Performance 28317.5.3 MP Effects on Soil Nutrient Cycling 28917.6 Conclusions and Perspectives for Future Research 291References 29218 Microbial Degradation of Plastics 305Abin Sebastian, Aleena Maria Paul, Donia Dominic, Misriya Shaji, Priya Jose, Sarika Sasi, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad18.1 Introduction 30518.2 Diversity of Plastic- Degrading Microbes 30718.3 Mechanism of Microbe- Mediated Decomposition of Plastics 30918.4 Molecular Factors in the Microbial Breakdown of Plastics 31118.5 Microbes and Sustainable Degradation of Plastics 31318.5.1 Outlook 315References 31619 Microplastics and Soil Nutrient Cycling 321Madhuni Wijesooriya, Hasintha Wijesekara, Madushika Sewwandi, Sasimali Soysa, Anushka Upamali Rajapaksha, Meththika Vithanage, and Nanthi Bolan19.1 Introduction 32119.2 Microplastics in Soil 32219.3 Effect of Microplastics on Nutrient Cycling 32319.3.1 Soil Nitrogen Cycling 32419.3.3 Soil Phosphorous Content 32519.4 Effect of Microplastic- Driven Factors on Soil Nutrient Cycling 32619.4.1 Properties of Microplastics 32619.4.3 Soil Chemical Characteristics 32919.4.4 Soil Physical Characteristics 33019.4.5 Consequences of Microplastics for Nutrient Cycling and Implications 33119.5 Mechanisms of Microplastic- Driven Plant Toxicity/Nutrient Uptake 33219.6 Future Perspectives 333References 333Section V Microplastics in Food Systems 33920 Microplastics in the Food Chain 341Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe, Sharmila Jayatilake, H. Umesh K.D.Z. Rajapakse, N.K. Sandunika Kithmini, and K.M. Prakash M. Kulathunga20.1 Introduction 34120.2 Presence of Microplastics in the Food Chain 34220.2.1 Transmission Through the Food Chain 34320.2.2 Other Pathways Through Which Microplastics Enter Food 34520.2.2.1 Transmission from Food Packaging 34620.3 Possible Health Effects of Microplastics in Food 34720.4 How to Minimize Microplastic Contamination in Food 34820.4.1 Need for Research on the Realistic Ecological Impact of Microplastics 34920.4.2 Effective Methods of Microplastic Detection and Removal 34920.4.4 Efficient Disposal of Plastic Waste 35020.5 Summary 350References 35121 Microplastics in Salt and Drinking Water 357Muthumali U. Adikari, Nirmala Prasadi, and Chamila V.L. Jayasinghe21.1 Microplastics in Salt 35721.1.1 Introduction 35721.1.1.1 Microplastics in Salt: Occurrence and Abundance 35721.1.1.2 Microplastic Contamination in Different Salt Types 35821.1.1.3 Estimated Consumption of Microplastics through Salt 36021.2.1 Introduction 36121.2.4 Microplastics in Drinking Water: Analytical Methods Used 36321.2.5 Removal Strategies 36421.3 Summary 365References 36522 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood (Invertebrates) and Seaweeds 369Sanchala Gallage22.1 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 36922.1.3 Possible MP Accumulation Pathways in Commercial Seafood 37122.1.4 Microplastics in Commercial Seafood and Seaweeds 37222.1.4.2 Microplastics in Shrimp 37322.1.4.3 Microplastics in Crabs 37422.1.4.4 Microplastics in Lobsters 37522.1.4.5 Microplastics in Sea Urchins and Sea Cucumbers 37622.1.4.6 Microplastics in Seaweeds 37722.1.5 Concluding Notes 377Acknowledgement 378References 37823 Microplastic Toxicity to Humans 381Magdalena Madeła23.1 Introduction 38123.2 Ingestion of Microplastics 38223.3 Human Exposure to Inhalation of Microplastics 38423.4 Human Exposure to Dermal Contact with Microplastics 38523.5 Conclusions 386References 387Section VI Treatment Technologies and Management 39124 Management of Microplastics from Sources to Humans 393Samanthika Senarath and Dinushi Kaushalya24.1 Introduction 39324.1.1 Composition and Characteristics of Microplastics 39424.2 Classification and Sources of Microplastics 39424.2.1 Sources of Human Exposure to Microplastics 39524.3 Impact of Microplastics on Human Health 39624.4 Social and Ecological Impacts of Microplastics 39724.4.1 Management Strategies for Microplastics 39824.4.1.1 Proper Management of Plastics and Plastic Waste 39924.4.1.2 Use of Bio- based and Biodegradable Plastics 40024.4.1.3 Improvement of Wastewater and Solid Waste Treatment Processes 40024.5 Prospects in Microplastic Management 40124.6 Summary 401References 40125 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics vs. Bioplastics 405Iwona Zawieja25.1 Ordinary Plastic – General Characteristics 40525.2 Bioplastics – General Characteristics 40625.3 Biodegradability of Bioplastics 40825.5 Environmental Benefits of Using Bioplastic 41025.6 Summary 412Acknowledgments 412References 413Section VII Case Studies 41526 Plastic Nurdles in Marine Environments Due to Accidental Spillage 417Madushika Sewwandi, Santhirasekaram Keerthanan, Kalani Imalka Perera, and Meththika Vithanage26.1 Introduction 41726.1.2 Plastic Nurdles 41826.2.2.1 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twentieth Century 41926.2.2.2 Nurdle Distribution on Beaches in the Atlantic Ocean in the Twenty- First Century 42026.2.2.3 Nurdle Pollution in the Mediterranean Sea 42126.3.2 Fate and Transport of Nurdles in Marine Systems 42226.3.3 Impacts of Nurdle Spillage on the Marine Environment 42326.4 X- Press Pearl Shipwreck – Case Study 42426.4.1 Nurdle Spillage 42426.4.3 Characteristics and Contamination of Spilled Nurdles 42526.4.4 Possible Impacts 42726.4.4.1 Marine Environment 42826.4.4.5 Impact on the Economy 429References 42927 Compost- Hosted Microplastics – Municipal Solid Waste Compost 433K.S.D. Premarathna, Sammani Ramanayaka, Ayanthie Navaratne, Hasintha Wijesekara, Jasintha Jayasanka, and Meththika Vithanage27.1 Municipal Solid Waste 43327.1.2 Composting Process as a Source of Microplastics 43527.2.2 Sizes of microplastics 43627.2.3 Characteristics of Compost- Hosted Microplastics 43627.3 Impact of Microplastic- Contaminated Compost on Soil Properties 43727.3.2 Impact on Soil Chemical Properties 43827.4 Compost- Hosted Microplastics as a Vector 44027.4.1 Effect on Soil Organisms 44127.5 Future Perspectives 442References 44328 Single- Use Ordinary Plastics and Bioplastics – A Case Study in Brazil 449Luís P. Azevedo, Carlos A.F. Lagarinhos, Denise C.R. Espinosa, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad28.1 Introduction 44928.1.1 Municipality of São Paulo (the Largest in the Country) – State Law No. 15374/2011 45128.1.2 State of Rio de Janeiro – State Law No. 8473/2019 45128.1.3 Santos(SP) – Municipal Law 232/2019 45228.1.4 Ilhabela(SP) – Municipal Law 598/2008 45228.1.5 São Sebastião (SP) – Municipal Law 2590/2018 45228.1.6 Natal (RN) – Municipal Law 295/2009 45228.1.7 Fernando de Noronha Island (PE) – District Decree 002/2018 45228.2.2 Polybutylene Adipate Terephthalate (PBAT) Bioplastic 45328.2.5 Shrimp Shell Bioplastic 45428.2.9 Organic Waste Bioplastic 45528.5 Energy Recovery 45728.6 Public Policies 45828.7 Impacts of Environmental Legislation 45928.8 Challenges of Bioplastics Production 46028.9 Conclusions 461References 46229 Microplastics Remediation – Possible Perspectives for Mitigating Saline Environments 465Amir Parnian, Mehdi Mahbod, and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad29.1 Introduction 46529.2 Assimilation of Microplastics in Saline Water Bodies and Soil Ecosystems 46729.3 Microplastic Self- Aging and Degradation: Hopes and Risks for the Ecosystem 46829.4 Microplastics: Technologies for Remediating Saline Environments 46829.5 Economic and Social Aspects of Microplastic Remediation in Saline Conditions 47129.6 Conclusion: Hopes, and Resistance to Environmental Remediation to Achieve a Cleaner Environment 472References 47230 The Management of Waste Tires: A Case Study in Brazil 477Carlos Alberto Ferreira Lagarinhos, Denise Crocce Romano Espinosa, Jorge Alberto Soares Tenório, and Luís Peres de Azevedo30.1 Introduction 47730.2 Methodology 47830.3 Results and Discussions 47930.3.4 Comparison Between Systems for Recycling Tires in the EU Countries, the United States, Japan, and Brazil 48130.3.5 Technologies for Reuse, Recycling, and Energy Recovery 48430.3.8 Tire Pyrolysis Process 48630.3.9 Reclaimed Rubber and Rugs for Automobiles 48630.3.11 Asphalt Rubber 48730.4 Reverse Logistics Tires in Brazil 48830.4.2 Recycling by Tire Manufacturers 49030.6 Conclusions 495References 496Index 499