Derald Wing Sue, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology and Education in the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University in New York. Lisa Beth Spanierman, Ph.D., is Professor and Head of the Faculty of Counseling and Counseling Psychology at Arizona State University in Tempe.

• Preface xiSection One: Psychological Manifestation and Dynamics of MicroaggressionsChapter One Microaggressions as Toxic Rain: Here, There, and Everywhere! 3What Are Microaggressions? 7Racial Microaggressions 9The Invisibility and Nebulous Nature of Everyday Racism 12Gender Microaggressions 16Sexual‐Orientation Microaggressions 19Misunderstanding Microaggressions 20Stop Making Mountains Out of Molehills! 20Everything’s a Microaggression in This Climate of Political Correctness 20Your Analysis is Flawed 21Microaggressions, Marginality, and Harmful Impact 23The Way Forward: Making the “Invisible” Visible 26Chapter Two Taxonomy of Microaggressions 31Conscious and Deliberate Bigotry versus Unconscious and Unintentional Bias 33The Changing Face of Racism, Sexism, and Heterosexism 34Microaggressions 36Environmental Macroaggressions 37Forms of Microaggressions 41Microassaults 41Microinsults and Microinvalidations: Common Themes 48Microinsults 49Microinvalidations 52The Way Forward: Defining, Recognizing, and Deconstructing Hidden Messages in Microaggressions 55Chapter Three The Psychological Dilemmas and Dynamics of Microaggressions 59Clash of Racial Realities : “You Are Just Being Hypersensitive and Misreading the Situation!” 62Invisibility of Unintentional Biases: “I’m Not a Racist!” 67Perceived Minimal Harm of Microaggressions : “Don’t Make a Mountain Out of a Molehill!” 70The Catch‐22 of Responding to Microaggressions : “You’re Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don’t!” 73The Way Forward: Dealing with Psychological Dilemmas 79Section Two: Microaggressive Impact on Targets and PerpetratorsChapter Four The Microaggression Process Model: The Internal Struggle of Targets 85 Tracing the Impact of Microaggressions 88Phase One—The Potential Microaggressive Incident or Event 88Phase Two—Initial Assessment and Questioning of the Incident 96Phase Three—Reaction Processes 97Phase Four—Interpretation and Meaning 103Phase Five—Consequences and Impact 106The Microaggression Process Model: Recap 110The Way Forward: Strength through Adversity 112Chapter Five Microaggressive Stress: Impact on Physical and Psychological Well‐Being 115Biological Stressors: A Roadmap to Understanding Microaggressive Harm 117Psychological and Social Stressors 119Microaggressions and Daily Hassles 120Impact of Everyday Hassles 121The Life‐Change Model of Stress 122The Transactional Model of Stress 123Situating Stress in the Macro‐Context of Oppression 124The Harmful Effects of Microaggressive Stress 127Physical Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 127Psychological Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 129Strength through Adversity 140The Way Forward: Responding Strategically and Resisting Microaggressions 140Chapter Six Microaggressive Perpetrators: Who, What, When, How, and Why? 145Who Are Microaggressive Perpetrators? 147How and Why Do Individuals Perpetrate Microaggressions? 149Using the Tools: Creating and Maintaining Dominance 149Power to Impose a Biased Reality 151What Makes It So Difficult for Perpetrators to Recognize Their Privilege? 153Layer One—Fear of Appearing Biased 154Layer Two—Fear of Recognizing One’s Complicity in Oppression 155Layer Three—Fear of Acknowledging One’s Privilege 156Layer Four—Fear of Taking Personal Responsibility to End Oppression 158What Are the Costs of Microaggressions to Perpetrators? 160Cognitive Costs of Oppression 161Emotional Costs of Oppression 162Behavioral Costs of Oppression 164Spiritual and Moral Costs of Oppression 165The Way Forward: The Ethical Mandate 166Section Three: Interrogating Microaggressions: On Research, Teaching, and CounselingChapter Seven Researching Microaggressions: Show Me the Evidence! 171In Their Own Words: Qualitative Investigation of Microaggressions 173Purposive Samples 178Focus Groups 178Individual Interviews 180Other Data Sources 180Trustworthiness 182Do Findings Generalize? Quantitative Investigation of Microaggressions 182Measuring Microaggressions 183Quantitative Research Designs 189Summary 191The Way Forward: Future Research Directions 192Chapter Eight Teaching about Microaggressions 199Faculty Narratives: Facing Challenges in the Classroom 201Challenges Faculty Members of Color Face 202Challenges White Faculty Members Face 205Encountering Microaggressions in the Classroom 207Navigating Microaggressions: What Can Educators Do? 209Microaggressions Pedagogy: How to Teach about Microaggressions 213The Way Forward: General Strategies for Facilitating Difficult Dialogues on Race 216Chapter Nine Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 223Underutilization of Mental Health Services 225Premature Termination and Quality of Mental Health Care 226Multicultural Counseling Competence 227Manifestations of Racial Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 228Microaggressions Influence Counseling Process and Outcomes 237Innovative Research Approaches 240The Way Forward: Microaggressions Implications for Practice and Research 241Section Four: Disarming Microaggressions and MacroaggressionsChapter Ten Microintervention Strategies for Disarming Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 249Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 251The Need to Take Action: Targets, Allies, and Bystanders 252Targets 253Allies 254Bystanders 256Responding to Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 257Microinterventions 258Strategic Goal: Make the “Invisible” Visible 261Strategic Goal: Disarm the Microaggression 269Strategic Goal: Educate the Perpetrator 271Strategic Goal: Seek External Intervention or Support 273Microinterventions and Macroaggressions 275Context Matters 277The Way Forward: Microinterventions and the New Research Frontier 278References 281Author Index 321Subject Index 337

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Derald Wing Sue, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology and Education in the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University in New York. Lisa Beth Spanierman, Ph.D., is Professor and Head of the Faculty of Counseling and Counseling Psychology at Arizona State University in Tempe.

• Preface xiSection One: Psychological Manifestation and Dynamics of MicroaggressionsChapter One Microaggressions as Toxic Rain: Here, There, and Everywhere! 3What Are Microaggressions? 7Racial Microaggressions 9The Invisibility and Nebulous Nature of Everyday Racism 12Gender Microaggressions 16Sexual‐Orientation Microaggressions 19Misunderstanding Microaggressions 20Stop Making Mountains Out of Molehills! 20Everything’s a Microaggression in This Climate of Political Correctness 20Your Analysis is Flawed 21Microaggressions, Marginality, and Harmful Impact 23The Way Forward: Making the “Invisible” Visible 26Chapter Two Taxonomy of Microaggressions 31Conscious and Deliberate Bigotry versus Unconscious and Unintentional Bias 33The Changing Face of Racism, Sexism, and Heterosexism 34Microaggressions 36Environmental Macroaggressions 37Forms of Microaggressions 41Microassaults 41Microinsults and Microinvalidations: Common Themes 48Microinsults 49Microinvalidations 52The Way Forward: Defining, Recognizing, and Deconstructing Hidden Messages in Microaggressions 55Chapter Three The Psychological Dilemmas and Dynamics of Microaggressions 59Clash of Racial Realities : “You Are Just Being Hypersensitive and Misreading the Situation!” 62Invisibility of Unintentional Biases: “I’m Not a Racist!” 67Perceived Minimal Harm of Microaggressions : “Don’t Make a Mountain Out of a Molehill!” 70The Catch‐22 of Responding to Microaggressions : “You’re Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don’t!” 73The Way Forward: Dealing with Psychological Dilemmas 79Section Two: Microaggressive Impact on Targets and PerpetratorsChapter Four The Microaggression Process Model: The Internal Struggle of Targets 85 Tracing the Impact of Microaggressions 88Phase One—The Potential Microaggressive Incident or Event 88Phase Two—Initial Assessment and Questioning of the Incident 96Phase Three—Reaction Processes 97Phase Four—Interpretation and Meaning 103Phase Five—Consequences and Impact 106The Microaggression Process Model: Recap 110The Way Forward: Strength through Adversity 112Chapter Five Microaggressive Stress: Impact on Physical and Psychological Well‐Being 115Biological Stressors: A Roadmap to Understanding Microaggressive Harm 117Psychological and Social Stressors 119Microaggressions and Daily Hassles 120Impact of Everyday Hassles 121The Life‐Change Model of Stress 122The Transactional Model of Stress 123Situating Stress in the Macro‐Context of Oppression 124The Harmful Effects of Microaggressive Stress 127Physical Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 127Psychological Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 129Strength through Adversity 140The Way Forward: Responding Strategically and Resisting Microaggressions 140Chapter Six Microaggressive Perpetrators: Who, What, When, How, and Why? 145Who Are Microaggressive Perpetrators? 147How and Why Do Individuals Perpetrate Microaggressions? 149Using the Tools: Creating and Maintaining Dominance 149Power to Impose a Biased Reality 151What Makes It So Difficult for Perpetrators to Recognize Their Privilege? 153Layer One—Fear of Appearing Biased 154Layer Two—Fear of Recognizing One’s Complicity in Oppression 155Layer Three—Fear of Acknowledging One’s Privilege 156Layer Four—Fear of Taking Personal Responsibility to End Oppression 158What Are the Costs of Microaggressions to Perpetrators? 160Cognitive Costs of Oppression 161Emotional Costs of Oppression 162Behavioral Costs of Oppression 164Spiritual and Moral Costs of Oppression 165The Way Forward: The Ethical Mandate 166Section Three: Interrogating Microaggressions: On Research, Teaching, and CounselingChapter Seven Researching Microaggressions: Show Me the Evidence! 171In Their Own Words: Qualitative Investigation of Microaggressions 173Purposive Samples 178Focus Groups 178Individual Interviews 180Other Data Sources 180Trustworthiness 182Do Findings Generalize? Quantitative Investigation of Microaggressions 182Measuring Microaggressions 183Quantitative Research Designs 189Summary 191The Way Forward: Future Research Directions 192Chapter Eight Teaching about Microaggressions 199Faculty Narratives: Facing Challenges in the Classroom 201Challenges Faculty Members of Color Face 202Challenges White Faculty Members Face 205Encountering Microaggressions in the Classroom 207Navigating Microaggressions: What Can Educators Do? 209Microaggressions Pedagogy: How to Teach about Microaggressions 213The Way Forward: General Strategies for Facilitating Difficult Dialogues on Race 216Chapter Nine Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 223Underutilization of Mental Health Services 225Premature Termination and Quality of Mental Health Care 226Multicultural Counseling Competence 227Manifestations of Racial Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 228Microaggressions Influence Counseling Process and Outcomes 237Innovative Research Approaches 240The Way Forward: Microaggressions Implications for Practice and Research 241Section Four: Disarming Microaggressions and MacroaggressionsChapter Ten Microintervention Strategies for Disarming Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 249Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 251The Need to Take Action: Targets, Allies, and Bystanders 252Targets 253Allies 254Bystanders 256Responding to Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 257Microinterventions 258Strategic Goal: Make the “Invisible” Visible 261Strategic Goal: Disarm the Microaggression 269Strategic Goal: Educate the Perpetrator 271Strategic Goal: Seek External Intervention or Support 273Microinterventions and Macroaggressions 275Context Matters 277The Way Forward: Microinterventions and the New Research Frontier 278References 281Author Index 321Subject Index 337

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Derald Wing Sue, Ph.D., is Professor of Psychology and Education in the Department of Counseling and Clinical Psychology at Teachers College, Columbia University in New York. Lisa Beth Spanierman, Ph.D., is Professor and Head of the Faculty of Counseling and Counseling Psychology at Arizona State University in Tempe.

• Preface xiSection One: Psychological Manifestation and Dynamics of MicroaggressionsChapter One Microaggressions as Toxic Rain: Here, There, and Everywhere! 3What Are Microaggressions? 7Racial Microaggressions 9The Invisibility and Nebulous Nature of Everyday Racism 12Gender Microaggressions 16Sexual‐Orientation Microaggressions 19Misunderstanding Microaggressions 20Stop Making Mountains Out of Molehills! 20Everything’s a Microaggression in This Climate of Political Correctness 20Your Analysis is Flawed 21Microaggressions, Marginality, and Harmful Impact 23The Way Forward: Making the “Invisible” Visible 26Chapter Two Taxonomy of Microaggressions 31Conscious and Deliberate Bigotry versus Unconscious and Unintentional Bias 33The Changing Face of Racism, Sexism, and Heterosexism 34Microaggressions 36Environmental Macroaggressions 37Forms of Microaggressions 41Microassaults 41Microinsults and Microinvalidations: Common Themes 48Microinsults 49Microinvalidations 52The Way Forward: Defining, Recognizing, and Deconstructing Hidden Messages in Microaggressions 55Chapter Three The Psychological Dilemmas and Dynamics of Microaggressions 59Clash of Racial Realities : “You Are Just Being Hypersensitive and Misreading the Situation!” 62Invisibility of Unintentional Biases: “I’m Not a Racist!” 67Perceived Minimal Harm of Microaggressions : “Don’t Make a Mountain Out of a Molehill!” 70The Catch‐22 of Responding to Microaggressions : “You’re Damned if You Do and Damned if You Don’t!” 73The Way Forward: Dealing with Psychological Dilemmas 79Section Two: Microaggressive Impact on Targets and PerpetratorsChapter Four The Microaggression Process Model: The Internal Struggle of Targets 85 Tracing the Impact of Microaggressions 88Phase One—The Potential Microaggressive Incident or Event 88Phase Two—Initial Assessment and Questioning of the Incident 96Phase Three—Reaction Processes 97Phase Four—Interpretation and Meaning 103Phase Five—Consequences and Impact 106The Microaggression Process Model: Recap 110The Way Forward: Strength through Adversity 112Chapter Five Microaggressive Stress: Impact on Physical and Psychological Well‐Being 115Biological Stressors: A Roadmap to Understanding Microaggressive Harm 117Psychological and Social Stressors 119Microaggressions and Daily Hassles 120Impact of Everyday Hassles 121The Life‐Change Model of Stress 122The Transactional Model of Stress 123Situating Stress in the Macro‐Context of Oppression 124The Harmful Effects of Microaggressive Stress 127Physical Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 127Psychological Health Effects of Microaggressive Stressors 129Strength through Adversity 140The Way Forward: Responding Strategically and Resisting Microaggressions 140Chapter Six Microaggressive Perpetrators: Who, What, When, How, and Why? 145Who Are Microaggressive Perpetrators? 147How and Why Do Individuals Perpetrate Microaggressions? 149Using the Tools: Creating and Maintaining Dominance 149Power to Impose a Biased Reality 151What Makes It So Difficult for Perpetrators to Recognize Their Privilege? 153Layer One—Fear of Appearing Biased 154Layer Two—Fear of Recognizing One’s Complicity in Oppression 155Layer Three—Fear of Acknowledging One’s Privilege 156Layer Four—Fear of Taking Personal Responsibility to End Oppression 158What Are the Costs of Microaggressions to Perpetrators? 160Cognitive Costs of Oppression 161Emotional Costs of Oppression 162Behavioral Costs of Oppression 164Spiritual and Moral Costs of Oppression 165The Way Forward: The Ethical Mandate 166Section Three: Interrogating Microaggressions: On Research, Teaching, and CounselingChapter Seven Researching Microaggressions: Show Me the Evidence! 171In Their Own Words: Qualitative Investigation of Microaggressions 173Purposive Samples 178Focus Groups 178Individual Interviews 180Other Data Sources 180Trustworthiness 182Do Findings Generalize? Quantitative Investigation of Microaggressions 182Measuring Microaggressions 183Quantitative Research Designs 189Summary 191The Way Forward: Future Research Directions 192Chapter Eight Teaching about Microaggressions 199Faculty Narratives: Facing Challenges in the Classroom 201Challenges Faculty Members of Color Face 202Challenges White Faculty Members Face 205Encountering Microaggressions in the Classroom 207Navigating Microaggressions: What Can Educators Do? 209Microaggressions Pedagogy: How to Teach about Microaggressions 213The Way Forward: General Strategies for Facilitating Difficult Dialogues on Race 216Chapter Nine Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 223Underutilization of Mental Health Services 225Premature Termination and Quality of Mental Health Care 226Multicultural Counseling Competence 227Manifestations of Racial Microaggressions in Counseling and Psychotherapy 228Microaggressions Influence Counseling Process and Outcomes 237Innovative Research Approaches 240The Way Forward: Microaggressions Implications for Practice and Research 241Section Four: Disarming Microaggressions and MacroaggressionsChapter Ten Microintervention Strategies for Disarming Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 249Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 251The Need to Take Action: Targets, Allies, and Bystanders 252Targets 253Allies 254Bystanders 256Responding to Microaggressions and Macroaggressions 257Microinterventions 258Strategic Goal: Make the “Invisible” Visible 261Strategic Goal: Disarm the Microaggression 269Strategic Goal: Educate the Perpetrator 271Strategic Goal: Seek External Intervention or Support 273Microinterventions and Macroaggressions 275Context Matters 277The Way Forward: Microinterventions and the New Research Frontier 278References 281Author Index 321Subject Index 337

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