Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Science (State) in radioecology, Director of Research Emeritus at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books/chapters and 150 communications at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xvChapter 1 General Information on Marine Radioecology and on Risk Assessment 11.1 General information on radioecology 11.1.1 History of radioecology 21.1.2 The main marine radioecology laboratories 31.1.3. The triad of radioecology: exposure, bioaccumulation and adverse effect 41.2 The principle of risk assessment 71.3 The particular case of the risk linked to ionizing radiation 11Chapter 2 The Origins of Radionuclides in Marine Environments 132.1. Natural or anthropogenic origins of radionuclides in the marine environment 132.2 The natural origins of radionuclides 152.3 The military origins of anthropogenic radionuclides 172.3.1. Radionuclides due to atmospheric fallout from atomic device explosions 182.3.2 Direct releases of radionuclides from nuclear deterrence activities 252.3.3 Indirect releases of radionuclides due to nuclear deterrence activities 262.4. Civilian origins of anthropogenic radionuclides related to the nuclear fuel cycle 272.4.1 Uranium mines and nuclear fuel fabrication plants 282.4.2 The use of nuclear fuel 292.4.3 Spent fuel reprocessing plants 322.5 The origins of anthropogenic radionuclides linked to accidents 352.5.1 The Thule accident 372.5.2 Releases due to submarine accidents 372.5.3 The Chernobyl accident 372.5.4 The Fukushima accident 382.6 Indirect anthropogenic origins due to rivers and groundwater 402.7 Anthropogenic origins of radioactive waste 412.8 Conclusion 43Chapter 3 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Environment 473.1 The introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.1 Diffuse or limited, chronic or intermittent introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.2 Chemical speciation of radionuclides during their introduction into the environment 473.2 The behavior of radionuclides in the marine environment 483.2.1 Conservative and non-conservative radionuclides 483.2.2 The distribution coefficient Kd 493.2.3 Factors influencing Kd 513.2.4 Chemical speciation of radionuclides 613.2.5 The physico-chemical behavior of radionuclides in marine waters 633.3 Dispersion of radionuclides in marine waters 673.3.1 The passage of radionuclides through estuaries 673.3.2 Dispersion in marine waters 713.4 Dispersion of radionuclides with marine sedimentary particles 803.5 Conclusion 81Chapter 4 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Biosphere 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Penetration pathways of radionuclides in living organisms 844.2.1 Exposure pathways of flora and fauna 844.2.2 Transmembrane passages 844.2.3 Body distribution 864.3 Radionuclide bioaccumulation mechanisms 864.3.1 Accumulation mechanisms in plants 874.3.2 Accumulation mechanisms in animals 894.4 Influence of ecological factors on radioactive contamination 934.4.1 Influence of abiotic factors on radioactive contamination of aquatic organisms 944.4.2 Biological factors in the contamination of organisms 994.4.3 Influence of living organisms on the cycle of radionuclides in the aquatic environment 1014.5 The organotropism of radionuclides 1064.6 The mechanisms for the chemical detoxification of radionuclides 1084.6.1 Chemical detoxification in animals: biomineralization and induction of metallothionein 1084.6.2 Storage forms and chemical speciation of radionuclides in organisms 1094.6.3 Influence of chemical speciation in the biota on trophic transfers 1104.7 Disposal of radionuclides 1114.8 Quantification of radionuclide transfers to organisms 1144.8.1 The various methodologies for estimating radionuclide transfers 1154.8.2. Transfer of radionuclides from water to organisms or bioconcentration 1164.8.3 Transfer of radionuclides from sediment to benthic organisms 1204.8.4 Trophic transfers of radionuclides 1214.9 Conclusion 130Chapter 5 Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment and Monitoring Programs 1355.1 Introduction 1355.2 Radioactive contamination of marine environments 1365.2.1 Radioactive contamination by natural radionuclides 1365.2.2 The current state of radioactive contamination of the marine environment 1405.2.3 The marine sites of atmospheric atomic tests 1425.2.4 Sites affected by atmospheric deposition 1505.2.5 Sites contaminated by spent fuel reprocessing plants 1545.2.6 Sites affected by nuclear accidents 1595.2.7 Sites affected by submerged radioactive waste 1635.2.8 Sites with little impact from radioactive pollution 1645.3 Environmental radiological monitoring networks 1655.3.1 General information 1655.3.2 Environmental monitoring using bioaccumulators 1675.4 International and regional marine environmental monitoring networks 1705.4.1 The work of the IAEA in the field of the marine environment 1705.4.2 OSPAR radiological monitoring 1705.4.3 The northern sea networks 1725.5 Radiological monitoring in France 1735.5.1 Principles of control 1745.5.2 The IRSN monitoring network 1755.5.3 RNM (Réseau national de mesures de la radioactivité de l’environnement) 1765.6 Conclusion 177Chapter 6 Radiation Doses Received by Marine Organisms 1796.1 Introduction 1796.2 Methodologies for estimating the dose given to marine organisms 1796.2.1 The units of radiation doses 1816.2.2 The difficulties of estimating the radiation dose 1826.3 Examples of natural radiation doses to marine organisms 1826.3.1 Pelagic marine organisms 1846.3.2 Benthic marine organisms 1856.3.3 Deep-sea marine organisms and hydrothermal sources 1856.4 Examples of anthropogenic radiation doses to organisms 1866.4.1 Irradiation doses resulting from the testing of atomic bombs 1866.4.2 Radiation doses resulting from nuclear accidents 1876.4.3 Irradiation dose from spent fuel reprocessing plants 1906.4.4 Radiation dose from oil and gas operations 1916.4.5 Irradiation dose due to experimental contamination 1926.5 The ICRP approach 1936.5.1 Reference organisms (RAP, Reference Animal or Plant) 1936.5.2 Limitations of the methodology 1946.5.3 Towards essential improvements 1956.6 Systematic underestimation of the dose received by organisms 1976.7 Conclusion 198Chapter 7 Effects of Irradiation on Marine Organisms 1997.1 General information on the effects of irradiation 1997.1.1 Modes of action of ionizing radiation 1997.1.2 Deterministic and stochastic effects 2007.2 Effects of ionizing radiation at the molecular level 2017.2.1 Effects on DNA 2017.2.2 Induction of cytogenetic and genetic effects 2047.2.3 Effects on other biomolecules 2057.3 Effects of irradiation at the subcellular and cellular levels 2067.3.1 Physical alterations of chromosome structure 2067.3.2 Histopathological changes 2077.3.3 Induction of defense and damage biomarkers 2087.4 Effects of irradiation on individuals 2087.4.1 Mortality 2107.4.2 Alteration of reproduction 2127.4.3 Influence of the vital stage 2197.4.4 Radiosensitivity and radioresistance of organisms 2217.4.5 Conclusions on the effects of irradiation at the individual level 2237.5 Ecological community effects of irradiation 2237.5.1 Monitoring of highly contaminated areas 2247.5.2 Partial conclusions 2257.6 Confounding factors on the effects of irradiation 2257.7. Systematic under-evaluation of the biological effects of ionizing radiation 2287.7.1 Harmfulness according to life stage 2287.7.2 Harmfulness by tissue or organ 2287.7.3 Harmfulness according to emitters 2287.7.4 Not taking into account the bystander effect 2287.7.5 Failure to take into account the interactions between the effects of radionuclides 2297.7.6 Failure to take into account biodiversity in the marine environment 2297.8 Conclusion 229Chapter 8. Characterization of Radioactive Risk in Marine Organisms 2338.1 The principle of radioactive risk characterization 2338.1.1 International organizations involved in radioactive risk assessment 2348.1.2 European research 2358.2 Methods for selecting reference values 2368.2.1 The ICRP approach 2368.2.2 The ERICA approach 2368.3 Tools for assessing radioactive risk to non-human organisms 2378.3.1 The ERICA tool 2378.3.2 The FASSET database 2388.4 Recommendations of radiation doses for marine organisms 2398.5 Applications and feedback 2418.6 Gaps in the characterization of radioactive risk 2438.6.1. Position of international organizations with respect to the ICRP approach 2438.6.2 Transgenerational effects 2438.6.3 Ignorance of biodiversity 2448.6.4 The choice of the threshold adverse effect 2448.7 Conclusion 245Conclusion 247List of Acronyms 257References 261Index 311

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Science (State) in radioecology, Director of Research Emeritus at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books/chapters and 150 communications at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xvChapter 1 General Information on Marine Radioecology and on Risk Assessment 11.1 General information on radioecology 11.1.1 History of radioecology 21.1.2 The main marine radioecology laboratories 31.1.3. The triad of radioecology: exposure, bioaccumulation and adverse effect 41.2 The principle of risk assessment 71.3 The particular case of the risk linked to ionizing radiation 11Chapter 2 The Origins of Radionuclides in Marine Environments 132.1. Natural or anthropogenic origins of radionuclides in the marine environment 132.2 The natural origins of radionuclides 152.3 The military origins of anthropogenic radionuclides 172.3.1. Radionuclides due to atmospheric fallout from atomic device explosions 182.3.2 Direct releases of radionuclides from nuclear deterrence activities 252.3.3 Indirect releases of radionuclides due to nuclear deterrence activities 262.4. Civilian origins of anthropogenic radionuclides related to the nuclear fuel cycle 272.4.1 Uranium mines and nuclear fuel fabrication plants 282.4.2 The use of nuclear fuel 292.4.3 Spent fuel reprocessing plants 322.5 The origins of anthropogenic radionuclides linked to accidents 352.5.1 The Thule accident 372.5.2 Releases due to submarine accidents 372.5.3 The Chernobyl accident 372.5.4 The Fukushima accident 382.6 Indirect anthropogenic origins due to rivers and groundwater 402.7 Anthropogenic origins of radioactive waste 412.8 Conclusion 43Chapter 3 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Environment 473.1 The introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.1 Diffuse or limited, chronic or intermittent introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.2 Chemical speciation of radionuclides during their introduction into the environment 473.2 The behavior of radionuclides in the marine environment 483.2.1 Conservative and non-conservative radionuclides 483.2.2 The distribution coefficient Kd 493.2.3 Factors influencing Kd 513.2.4 Chemical speciation of radionuclides 613.2.5 The physico-chemical behavior of radionuclides in marine waters 633.3 Dispersion of radionuclides in marine waters 673.3.1 The passage of radionuclides through estuaries 673.3.2 Dispersion in marine waters 713.4 Dispersion of radionuclides with marine sedimentary particles 803.5 Conclusion 81Chapter 4 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Biosphere 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Penetration pathways of radionuclides in living organisms 844.2.1 Exposure pathways of flora and fauna 844.2.2 Transmembrane passages 844.2.3 Body distribution 864.3 Radionuclide bioaccumulation mechanisms 864.3.1 Accumulation mechanisms in plants 874.3.2 Accumulation mechanisms in animals 894.4 Influence of ecological factors on radioactive contamination 934.4.1 Influence of abiotic factors on radioactive contamination of aquatic organisms 944.4.2 Biological factors in the contamination of organisms 994.4.3 Influence of living organisms on the cycle of radionuclides in the aquatic environment 1014.5 The organotropism of radionuclides 1064.6 The mechanisms for the chemical detoxification of radionuclides 1084.6.1 Chemical detoxification in animals: biomineralization and induction of metallothionein 1084.6.2 Storage forms and chemical speciation of radionuclides in organisms 1094.6.3 Influence of chemical speciation in the biota on trophic transfers 1104.7 Disposal of radionuclides 1114.8 Quantification of radionuclide transfers to organisms 1144.8.1 The various methodologies for estimating radionuclide transfers 1154.8.2. Transfer of radionuclides from water to organisms or bioconcentration 1164.8.3 Transfer of radionuclides from sediment to benthic organisms 1204.8.4 Trophic transfers of radionuclides 1214.9 Conclusion 130Chapter 5 Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment and Monitoring Programs 1355.1 Introduction 1355.2 Radioactive contamination of marine environments 1365.2.1 Radioactive contamination by natural radionuclides 1365.2.2 The current state of radioactive contamination of the marine environment 1405.2.3 The marine sites of atmospheric atomic tests 1425.2.4 Sites affected by atmospheric deposition 1505.2.5 Sites contaminated by spent fuel reprocessing plants 1545.2.6 Sites affected by nuclear accidents 1595.2.7 Sites affected by submerged radioactive waste 1635.2.8 Sites with little impact from radioactive pollution 1645.3 Environmental radiological monitoring networks 1655.3.1 General information 1655.3.2 Environmental monitoring using bioaccumulators 1675.4 International and regional marine environmental monitoring networks 1705.4.1 The work of the IAEA in the field of the marine environment 1705.4.2 OSPAR radiological monitoring 1705.4.3 The northern sea networks 1725.5 Radiological monitoring in France 1735.5.1 Principles of control 1745.5.2 The IRSN monitoring network 1755.5.3 RNM (Réseau national de mesures de la radioactivité de l’environnement) 1765.6 Conclusion 177Chapter 6 Radiation Doses Received by Marine Organisms 1796.1 Introduction 1796.2 Methodologies for estimating the dose given to marine organisms 1796.2.1 The units of radiation doses 1816.2.2 The difficulties of estimating the radiation dose 1826.3 Examples of natural radiation doses to marine organisms 1826.3.1 Pelagic marine organisms 1846.3.2 Benthic marine organisms 1856.3.3 Deep-sea marine organisms and hydrothermal sources 1856.4 Examples of anthropogenic radiation doses to organisms 1866.4.1 Irradiation doses resulting from the testing of atomic bombs 1866.4.2 Radiation doses resulting from nuclear accidents 1876.4.3 Irradiation dose from spent fuel reprocessing plants 1906.4.4 Radiation dose from oil and gas operations 1916.4.5 Irradiation dose due to experimental contamination 1926.5 The ICRP approach 1936.5.1 Reference organisms (RAP, Reference Animal or Plant) 1936.5.2 Limitations of the methodology 1946.5.3 Towards essential improvements 1956.6 Systematic underestimation of the dose received by organisms 1976.7 Conclusion 198Chapter 7 Effects of Irradiation on Marine Organisms 1997.1 General information on the effects of irradiation 1997.1.1 Modes of action of ionizing radiation 1997.1.2 Deterministic and stochastic effects 2007.2 Effects of ionizing radiation at the molecular level 2017.2.1 Effects on DNA 2017.2.2 Induction of cytogenetic and genetic effects 2047.2.3 Effects on other biomolecules 2057.3 Effects of irradiation at the subcellular and cellular levels 2067.3.1 Physical alterations of chromosome structure 2067.3.2 Histopathological changes 2077.3.3 Induction of defense and damage biomarkers 2087.4 Effects of irradiation on individuals 2087.4.1 Mortality 2107.4.2 Alteration of reproduction 2127.4.3 Influence of the vital stage 2197.4.4 Radiosensitivity and radioresistance of organisms 2217.4.5 Conclusions on the effects of irradiation at the individual level 2237.5 Ecological community effects of irradiation 2237.5.1 Monitoring of highly contaminated areas 2247.5.2 Partial conclusions 2257.6 Confounding factors on the effects of irradiation 2257.7. Systematic under-evaluation of the biological effects of ionizing radiation 2287.7.1 Harmfulness according to life stage 2287.7.2 Harmfulness by tissue or organ 2287.7.3 Harmfulness according to emitters 2287.7.4 Not taking into account the bystander effect 2287.7.5 Failure to take into account the interactions between the effects of radionuclides 2297.7.6 Failure to take into account biodiversity in the marine environment 2297.8 Conclusion 229Chapter 8. Characterization of Radioactive Risk in Marine Organisms 2338.1 The principle of radioactive risk characterization 2338.1.1 International organizations involved in radioactive risk assessment 2348.1.2 European research 2358.2 Methods for selecting reference values 2368.2.1 The ICRP approach 2368.2.2 The ERICA approach 2368.3 Tools for assessing radioactive risk to non-human organisms 2378.3.1 The ERICA tool 2378.3.2 The FASSET database 2388.4 Recommendations of radiation doses for marine organisms 2398.5 Applications and feedback 2418.6 Gaps in the characterization of radioactive risk 2438.6.1. Position of international organizations with respect to the ICRP approach 2438.6.2 Transgenerational effects 2438.6.3 Ignorance of biodiversity 2448.6.4 The choice of the threshold adverse effect 2448.7 Conclusion 245Conclusion 247List of Acronyms 257References 261Index 311

Jean-Claude Amiard is a Doctor of Science (State) in radioecology, Director of Research Emeritus at the CNRS (University of Nantes, France) and former Associate Professor in Quebec and China. He is the author of more than 250 publications, 80 books/chapters and 150 communications at international conferences.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xvChapter 1 General Information on Marine Radioecology and on Risk Assessment 11.1 General information on radioecology 11.1.1 History of radioecology 21.1.2 The main marine radioecology laboratories 31.1.3. The triad of radioecology: exposure, bioaccumulation and adverse effect 41.2 The principle of risk assessment 71.3 The particular case of the risk linked to ionizing radiation 11Chapter 2 The Origins of Radionuclides in Marine Environments 132.1. Natural or anthropogenic origins of radionuclides in the marine environment 132.2 The natural origins of radionuclides 152.3 The military origins of anthropogenic radionuclides 172.3.1. Radionuclides due to atmospheric fallout from atomic device explosions 182.3.2 Direct releases of radionuclides from nuclear deterrence activities 252.3.3 Indirect releases of radionuclides due to nuclear deterrence activities 262.4. Civilian origins of anthropogenic radionuclides related to the nuclear fuel cycle 272.4.1 Uranium mines and nuclear fuel fabrication plants 282.4.2 The use of nuclear fuel 292.4.3 Spent fuel reprocessing plants 322.5 The origins of anthropogenic radionuclides linked to accidents 352.5.1 The Thule accident 372.5.2 Releases due to submarine accidents 372.5.3 The Chernobyl accident 372.5.4 The Fukushima accident 382.6 Indirect anthropogenic origins due to rivers and groundwater 402.7 Anthropogenic origins of radioactive waste 412.8 Conclusion 43Chapter 3 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Environment 473.1 The introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.1 Diffuse or limited, chronic or intermittent introduction of radionuclides into the marine environment 473.1.2 Chemical speciation of radionuclides during their introduction into the environment 473.2 The behavior of radionuclides in the marine environment 483.2.1 Conservative and non-conservative radionuclides 483.2.2 The distribution coefficient Kd 493.2.3 Factors influencing Kd 513.2.4 Chemical speciation of radionuclides 613.2.5 The physico-chemical behavior of radionuclides in marine waters 633.3 Dispersion of radionuclides in marine waters 673.3.1 The passage of radionuclides through estuaries 673.3.2 Dispersion in marine waters 713.4 Dispersion of radionuclides with marine sedimentary particles 803.5 Conclusion 81Chapter 4 The Fate of Radionuclides in the Marine Biosphere 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Penetration pathways of radionuclides in living organisms 844.2.1 Exposure pathways of flora and fauna 844.2.2 Transmembrane passages 844.2.3 Body distribution 864.3 Radionuclide bioaccumulation mechanisms 864.3.1 Accumulation mechanisms in plants 874.3.2 Accumulation mechanisms in animals 894.4 Influence of ecological factors on radioactive contamination 934.4.1 Influence of abiotic factors on radioactive contamination of aquatic organisms 944.4.2 Biological factors in the contamination of organisms 994.4.3 Influence of living organisms on the cycle of radionuclides in the aquatic environment 1014.5 The organotropism of radionuclides 1064.6 The mechanisms for the chemical detoxification of radionuclides 1084.6.1 Chemical detoxification in animals: biomineralization and induction of metallothionein 1084.6.2 Storage forms and chemical speciation of radionuclides in organisms 1094.6.3 Influence of chemical speciation in the biota on trophic transfers 1104.7 Disposal of radionuclides 1114.8 Quantification of radionuclide transfers to organisms 1144.8.1 The various methodologies for estimating radionuclide transfers 1154.8.2. Transfer of radionuclides from water to organisms or bioconcentration 1164.8.3 Transfer of radionuclides from sediment to benthic organisms 1204.8.4 Trophic transfers of radionuclides 1214.9 Conclusion 130Chapter 5 Radioactive Contamination of the Marine Environment and Monitoring Programs 1355.1 Introduction 1355.2 Radioactive contamination of marine environments 1365.2.1 Radioactive contamination by natural radionuclides 1365.2.2 The current state of radioactive contamination of the marine environment 1405.2.3 The marine sites of atmospheric atomic tests 1425.2.4 Sites affected by atmospheric deposition 1505.2.5 Sites contaminated by spent fuel reprocessing plants 1545.2.6 Sites affected by nuclear accidents 1595.2.7 Sites affected by submerged radioactive waste 1635.2.8 Sites with little impact from radioactive pollution 1645.3 Environmental radiological monitoring networks 1655.3.1 General information 1655.3.2 Environmental monitoring using bioaccumulators 1675.4 International and regional marine environmental monitoring networks 1705.4.1 The work of the IAEA in the field of the marine environment 1705.4.2 OSPAR radiological monitoring 1705.4.3 The northern sea networks 1725.5 Radiological monitoring in France 1735.5.1 Principles of control 1745.5.2 The IRSN monitoring network 1755.5.3 RNM (Réseau national de mesures de la radioactivité de l’environnement) 1765.6 Conclusion 177Chapter 6 Radiation Doses Received by Marine Organisms 1796.1 Introduction 1796.2 Methodologies for estimating the dose given to marine organisms 1796.2.1 The units of radiation doses 1816.2.2 The difficulties of estimating the radiation dose 1826.3 Examples of natural radiation doses to marine organisms 1826.3.1 Pelagic marine organisms 1846.3.2 Benthic marine organisms 1856.3.3 Deep-sea marine organisms and hydrothermal sources 1856.4 Examples of anthropogenic radiation doses to organisms 1866.4.1 Irradiation doses resulting from the testing of atomic bombs 1866.4.2 Radiation doses resulting from nuclear accidents 1876.4.3 Irradiation dose from spent fuel reprocessing plants 1906.4.4 Radiation dose from oil and gas operations 1916.4.5 Irradiation dose due to experimental contamination 1926.5 The ICRP approach 1936.5.1 Reference organisms (RAP, Reference Animal or Plant) 1936.5.2 Limitations of the methodology 1946.5.3 Towards essential improvements 1956.6 Systematic underestimation of the dose received by organisms 1976.7 Conclusion 198Chapter 7 Effects of Irradiation on Marine Organisms 1997.1 General information on the effects of irradiation 1997.1.1 Modes of action of ionizing radiation 1997.1.2 Deterministic and stochastic effects 2007.2 Effects of ionizing radiation at the molecular level 2017.2.1 Effects on DNA 2017.2.2 Induction of cytogenetic and genetic effects 2047.2.3 Effects on other biomolecules 2057.3 Effects of irradiation at the subcellular and cellular levels 2067.3.1 Physical alterations of chromosome structure 2067.3.2 Histopathological changes 2077.3.3 Induction of defense and damage biomarkers 2087.4 Effects of irradiation on individuals 2087.4.1 Mortality 2107.4.2 Alteration of reproduction 2127.4.3 Influence of the vital stage 2197.4.4 Radiosensitivity and radioresistance of organisms 2217.4.5 Conclusions on the effects of irradiation at the individual level 2237.5 Ecological community effects of irradiation 2237.5.1 Monitoring of highly contaminated areas 2247.5.2 Partial conclusions 2257.6 Confounding factors on the effects of irradiation 2257.7. Systematic under-evaluation of the biological effects of ionizing radiation 2287.7.1 Harmfulness according to life stage 2287.7.2 Harmfulness by tissue or organ 2287.7.3 Harmfulness according to emitters 2287.7.4 Not taking into account the bystander effect 2287.7.5 Failure to take into account the interactions between the effects of radionuclides 2297.7.6 Failure to take into account biodiversity in the marine environment 2297.8 Conclusion 229Chapter 8. Characterization of Radioactive Risk in Marine Organisms 2338.1 The principle of radioactive risk characterization 2338.1.1 International organizations involved in radioactive risk assessment 2348.1.2 European research 2358.2 Methods for selecting reference values 2368.2.1 The ICRP approach 2368.2.2 The ERICA approach 2368.3 Tools for assessing radioactive risk to non-human organisms 2378.3.1 The ERICA tool 2378.3.2 The FASSET database 2388.4 Recommendations of radiation doses for marine organisms 2398.5 Applications and feedback 2418.6 Gaps in the characterization of radioactive risk 2438.6.1. Position of international organizations with respect to the ICRP approach 2438.6.2 Transgenerational effects 2438.6.3 Ignorance of biodiversity 2448.6.4 The choice of the threshold adverse effect 2448.7 Conclusion 245Conclusion 247List of Acronyms 257References 261Index 311