Alexander A. Schuessler is Assistant Professor in the Department of Politics at New York University and Director of the NYU Politics Data Center.

• Preface ix Chapter One Expressive Choice and Mass Participation 3 1.1 Approaching Noninstrumental Choice 5 1.2 Methodological, But Not Ontological, Individualism 6 1.3 Overview 8 Part One: Theory 11 Chapter Two A Jukebox Model of Participation 13 2.1 Claiming Popularity 16 2.2 Horizontal Shielding of Fellow Participants 18 2.3 Horizontal Shielding of Competing Producers 21 2.4 Imposing a Cost of Participation 23 2.5 Idiom versus Motivation 26 2.6 Conclusion 27 Chapter Three Theoretical Frame 1: Choice and Doing 29 3.1 Turnout 31 3.2 Choice 36 3.3 Responses to the Participation Paradox 40 3.4 Preliminary Conclusion 47 Chapter Four Theoretical Frame 2: Choice and Being 49 4.1 Expressive Motivation and Symbolic Utility 50 4.2 Operationalizing Expressive Choice 59 4.3 Conclusion 62 Part Two: Analysis 65 Chapter Five Soft Drinks and Presidents: The Rise of Expressive Campaigns 67 5.1 Marketing and Campaigning 68 5.2 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Soft Drinks 74 5.3 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Presidents 79 5.4 Shielding: The "Lemons" Problem 84 5.5 Conclusion 87 Chapter Six Expressive Utility and Momentum 91 6.1 The Model 92 6.2 Heterogeneous Preferences and Turnout 105 6.3 Discussion: Momentum 112 6.4 Conclusion 117 Chapter Seven Instrumental Enhancement and Its Expressive Costs 119 7.1 Producer Interest and Producer Cost 121 7.2 Raising Benefit 124 7.3 Lowering Cost 126 7.4 Analytical Effects 128 7.5 Turnout and Negative Campaigning 130 7.6 Supply Constraints 131 7.7 Expressive Costs of Instrumental Enhancement 133 7.8 Commodification 137 7.9 Conclusion 139 Chapter Eight Expressive Momentum Strategies 141 8.1 Strategic Distortion of Participation Levels 142 8.2 "Visible" Participation 143 8.3 Expressive Essence 144 8.4 Comparative Statics 145 8.5 Nonequilibrium Optima and Groucho Equilibria 146 8.6 The Cost of Inducing Marginal Participation 147 8.7 Distortion Targets and Controlling Momentum 148 8.8 Cost Constraints 150 8.9 Profit Maximization versus Participant Maximization 152 8.10 Composition of Utility 153 8.11 Conclusion 156 Conclusion 159 References 163 Index 171

"Intriguing, carefully argued, complex, and engagingly written ... this book makes a valuable contribution and deserves to be widely read by theorists on both sides of the theoretical divide."--Choice "A well-written piece full of perceptive discussions ... Schuessler's call to think of 'choice as being' is a powerful one... He has provided abundant food for thought for social scientists of many different persuasions."--Luis Fernando Medina, American Journal of Sociology

Alexander A. Schuessler is Assistant Professor in the Department of Politics at New York University and Director of the NYU Politics Data Center.

• Preface ix Chapter One Expressive Choice and Mass Participation 3 1.1 Approaching Noninstrumental Choice 5 1.2 Methodological, But Not Ontological, Individualism 6 1.3 Overview 8 Part One: Theory 11 Chapter Two A Jukebox Model of Participation 13 2.1 Claiming Popularity 16 2.2 Horizontal Shielding of Fellow Participants 18 2.3 Horizontal Shielding of Competing Producers 21 2.4 Imposing a Cost of Participation 23 2.5 Idiom versus Motivation 26 2.6 Conclusion 27 Chapter Three Theoretical Frame 1: Choice and Doing 29 3.1 Turnout 31 3.2 Choice 36 3.3 Responses to the Participation Paradox 40 3.4 Preliminary Conclusion 47 Chapter Four Theoretical Frame 2: Choice and Being 49 4.1 Expressive Motivation and Symbolic Utility 50 4.2 Operationalizing Expressive Choice 59 4.3 Conclusion 62 Part Two: Analysis 65 Chapter Five Soft Drinks and Presidents: The Rise of Expressive Campaigns 67 5.1 Marketing and Campaigning 68 5.2 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Soft Drinks 74 5.3 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Presidents 79 5.4 Shielding: The "Lemons" Problem 84 5.5 Conclusion 87 Chapter Six Expressive Utility and Momentum 91 6.1 The Model 92 6.2 Heterogeneous Preferences and Turnout 105 6.3 Discussion: Momentum 112 6.4 Conclusion 117 Chapter Seven Instrumental Enhancement and Its Expressive Costs 119 7.1 Producer Interest and Producer Cost 121 7.2 Raising Benefit 124 7.3 Lowering Cost 126 7.4 Analytical Effects 128 7.5 Turnout and Negative Campaigning 130 7.6 Supply Constraints 131 7.7 Expressive Costs of Instrumental Enhancement 133 7.8 Commodification 137 7.9 Conclusion 139 Chapter Eight Expressive Momentum Strategies 141 8.1 Strategic Distortion of Participation Levels 142 8.2 "Visible" Participation 143 8.3 Expressive Essence 144 8.4 Comparative Statics 145 8.5 Nonequilibrium Optima and Groucho Equilibria 146 8.6 The Cost of Inducing Marginal Participation 147 8.7 Distortion Targets and Controlling Momentum 148 8.8 Cost Constraints 150 8.9 Profit Maximization versus Participant Maximization 152 8.10 Composition of Utility 153 8.11 Conclusion 156 Conclusion 159 References 163 Index 171

"Intriguing, carefully argued, complex, and engagingly written ... this book makes a valuable contribution and deserves to be widely read by theorists on both sides of the theoretical divide."--Choice "A well-written piece full of perceptive discussions ... Schuessler's call to think of 'choice as being' is a powerful one... He has provided abundant food for thought for social scientists of many different persuasions."--Luis Fernando Medina, American Journal of Sociology

Alexander A. Schuessler is Assistant Professor in the Department of Politics at New York University and Director of the NYU Politics Data Center.

• Preface ix Chapter One Expressive Choice and Mass Participation 3 1.1 Approaching Noninstrumental Choice 5 1.2 Methodological, But Not Ontological, Individualism 6 1.3 Overview 8 Part One: Theory 11 Chapter Two A Jukebox Model of Participation 13 2.1 Claiming Popularity 16 2.2 Horizontal Shielding of Fellow Participants 18 2.3 Horizontal Shielding of Competing Producers 21 2.4 Imposing a Cost of Participation 23 2.5 Idiom versus Motivation 26 2.6 Conclusion 27 Chapter Three Theoretical Frame 1: Choice and Doing 29 3.1 Turnout 31 3.2 Choice 36 3.3 Responses to the Participation Paradox 40 3.4 Preliminary Conclusion 47 Chapter Four Theoretical Frame 2: Choice and Being 49 4.1 Expressive Motivation and Symbolic Utility 50 4.2 Operationalizing Expressive Choice 59 4.3 Conclusion 62 Part Two: Analysis 65 Chapter Five Soft Drinks and Presidents: The Rise of Expressive Campaigns 67 5.1 Marketing and Campaigning 68 5.2 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Soft Drinks 74 5.3 Three Phases of Mass Appeals: Presidents 79 5.4 Shielding: The "Lemons" Problem 84 5.5 Conclusion 87 Chapter Six Expressive Utility and Momentum 91 6.1 The Model 92 6.2 Heterogeneous Preferences and Turnout 105 6.3 Discussion: Momentum 112 6.4 Conclusion 117 Chapter Seven Instrumental Enhancement and Its Expressive Costs 119 7.1 Producer Interest and Producer Cost 121 7.2 Raising Benefit 124 7.3 Lowering Cost 126 7.4 Analytical Effects 128 7.5 Turnout and Negative Campaigning 130 7.6 Supply Constraints 131 7.7 Expressive Costs of Instrumental Enhancement 133 7.8 Commodification 137 7.9 Conclusion 139 Chapter Eight Expressive Momentum Strategies 141 8.1 Strategic Distortion of Participation Levels 142 8.2 "Visible" Participation 143 8.3 Expressive Essence 144 8.4 Comparative Statics 145 8.5 Nonequilibrium Optima and Groucho Equilibria 146 8.6 The Cost of Inducing Marginal Participation 147 8.7 Distortion Targets and Controlling Momentum 148 8.8 Cost Constraints 150 8.9 Profit Maximization versus Participant Maximization 152 8.10 Composition of Utility 153 8.11 Conclusion 156 Conclusion 159 References 163 Index 171

"Intriguing, carefully argued, complex, and engagingly written ... this book makes a valuable contribution and deserves to be widely read by theorists on both sides of the theoretical divide."--Choice "A well-written piece full of perceptive discussions ... Schuessler's call to think of 'choice as being' is a powerful one... He has provided abundant food for thought for social scientists of many different persuasions."--Luis Fernando Medina, American Journal of Sociology