Liquid Crystal Displays

ERNST LUEDER is Professor Emeritus, Department of Electrical Communications, University of Stuttgart, Germany, where he was Director of the Institute of Network and Systems Theory. Now retired, he has authored more than 200 publications on LCDs, network and system theory and optimization, and sensors and electro- optical signal processing. PETER KNOLL was employed at Robert Bosch GmbH, Karlsruhe, Germany, from 1980 until his retirement in 2006. He is now a retired Associate Professor for Driver Assistance Systems and associated Human Machine Interaction at the KIT, formerly University of Karlsruhe, Germany. SEUNG HEE LEE is Professor, Jeonbuk National University, South Korea. He has invented fringe-field switching (FFS) liquid crystal device, which is widely used in all high-end liquid crystal displays. He has received several major awards such as the Merck Award-Major from the Korean Information Display Society, Jan Rajchman Prize from the Society of Information Display.

• Series Editor's Preface to the Third EditionForeword to the Second EditionPreface to the Third EditionPreface to the Second EditionPreface to the First EditionAbout the Authors1 Introduction 12 Liquid Crystal Materials and Liquid Crystal Cells 32.1 Properties of Liquid Crystals 32.1.1 Shape and phases of liquid crystals 32.1.2 Material properties of anisotropic liquid crystals 62.2 The Operation of a Twisted Nematic LCD 112.2.1 The electro-optical effects in transmissive twisted nematic LC cells 112.2.2 The addressing of LCDs by TFTs 183 Electro-optic Effects in Untwisted Nematic Liquid Crystals 213.1 The Planar and Harmonic Wave of Light 213.2 Propagation of Polarized Light in Birefringent Untwisted Nematic Liquid Crystal Cells 263.2.1 The propagation of light in a Fre´edericksz cell 263.2.2 The transmissive Fre´edericksz cell 313.2.3 The reflective Fre´edericksz cell 373.2.4 The Fre´edericksz cell as a phase-only modulator 393.2.5 The DAP cell or the vertically aligned cell 423.2.6 The HAN cell 443.2.7 The p cell 463.2.8 Switching dynamics of untwisted nematic LCDs 483.2.9 Fast blue phase liquid crystals 544 Electro-optic Effects in Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystals 574.1 The Propagation of Polarized Light in Twisted Nematic Liquid Crystal Cells 57COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL4.2 The Various Types of TN Cells 674.2.1 The regular TN cell 674.2.2 The supertwisted nematic LC cell (STN-LCD) 704.2.3 The mixed mode twisted nematic cell (MTN cell) 744.2.4 Reflective TN cells 764.3 Electronically Controlled Birefringence for the Generation of Colour 805 Descriptions of Polarization 835.1 The Characterizations of Polarization 835.2 A Differential Equation for the Propagation of Polarized Light through Anisotropic Media 915.3 Special Cases for Propagation of Light 955.3.1 Incidence of linearly polarized light 955.3.2 Incident light is circularly polarized 976 Propagation of Light with an Arbitrary Incident Angle through Anisotropic Media 996.1 Basic Equations for the Propagation of Light 996.2 Enhancement of the Performance of LC Cells 1076.2.1 The degradation of picture quality 1076.2.2 Optical compensation foils for the enhancement of picture quality 1096.2.2.1 The enhancement of contrast 1096.2.2.2 Compensation foils for LC molecules with different optical axis 1106.2.3 Suppression of grey shade inversion and the preservation of grey shade stability 1156.2.4 Fabrication of compensation foils 1166.3 Electro-optic Effects with Wide Viewing Angle 1166.3.1 Multidomain pixels 1166.3.2 In-plane switching 1176.3.3 Optically compensated bend cells 1196.4 Multidomain VA Cells, Especially for TV 1216.4.1 The torque generated by an electric field 1226.4.2 The requirements for a VA display, especially for TV 1246.4.2.1 The speeds of operation 1246.4.2.2 Colour shift, change in contrast and image sticking 1246.4.3 VA cells for TV applications 1296.4.3.1 Multidomain VA cells with protrusions (MVAs) 1296.4.3.2 Patterned VA cells (PVAs) 1306.4.3.3 PVA cells with two subpixels (CS-S-PVAs) 1326.4.3.4 Cell technologies avoiding a delayed optical response 136– Polymer sustained alignment (PSA) 136– Mountain shaped cell surface 1376.4.3.5 The continuous pinwheel alignment (CPA) 1396.5 Polarizers with Increased Luminous Output 1406.5.1 A reflective linear polarizer 1406.5.2 A reflective polarizer working with circularly polarized light 1416.6 Two Non-birefringent Foils 1427 Modified Nematic Liquid Crystal Displays 1457.1 Polymer Dispersed LCDs (PDLCDs) 1457.1.1 The operation of a PDLCD 1457.1.2 Applications of PDLCDs 1497.2 Guest-Host Displays 1507.2.1 The operation of Guest-Host Displays 1507.2.2 Reflective Guest-Host Displays 1548 Bistable Liquid Crystal Displays 1598.1 Ferroelectric Liquid Crystal Displays (FLCDs) 1598.2 Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal Displays 1688.3 Bistable Nematic Liquid Crystal Displays 1748.3.1 Bistable twist cells 1748.3.2 Grating aligned nematic devices 1758.3.3 Monostable surface anchoring switching 1779 Continuously Light Modulating Ferroelectric Displays 1799.1 Deformed Helix Ferroelectric Devices 1799.2 Antiferroelectric LCDs 18110 Addressing Schemes for Liquid Crystal Displays 18511 Direct Addressing 18912 Passive Matrix Addressing of TN Displays 19112.1 The Basic Addressing Scheme and the Law of Alt and Pleshko 19112.2 Implementation of PM Addressing 19612.3 Multiple Line Addressing 20112.3.1 The basic equations 20112.3.2 Waveforms for the row selection 20312.3.3 Column voltage for MLA 20512.3.4 Implementation of multi-line addressing 20612.3.5 Modified PM addressing of STN cells 21012.3.5.1 Decreased levels of addressing voltages 21012.3.5.2 Contrast and grey shades for MLA 21212.4 Two Frequency Driving of PMLCDs 21813 Passive Matrix Addressing of Bistable Displays 22313.1 Addressing of Ferroelectric LCDs 22313.1.1 The V–tmin addressing scheme 22513.1.2 The V–1/t addressing scheme 22613.1.3 Reducing crosstalk in FLCDs 22813.1.4 Ionic effects during addressing 22813.2 Addressing of Chiral Nematic Liquid Crystal Displays 23114 Addressing of Liquid Crystal Displays with a-Si Thin Film Transistors (a-Si-TFTs) 23914.1 Properties of a-Si Thin Film Transistors 23914.2 Static Operation of TFTs in an LCD 24414.3 The Dynamics of Switching by TFTs 25214.4 Bias-Temperature Stress Test of TFTs 25914.5 Drivers for AMLCDs 26014.6 The Entire Addressing System 26614.7 Layouts of Pixels with TFT Switches 26914.8 Fabrication Processes of a-Si TFTs 27214.9 Addressing of VA Displays 27714.9.1 Overshoot and undershoot driving of LCDs 27714.9.2 The dynamic capacitance compensation (DCC) 28114.9.3 Fringe field accelerated decay of luminance 28814.9.4 The addressing of two subpixels 29214.9.5 Biased vertical alignment (BVA) 29514.10 Motion Blur 29814.10.1 Causes, characterization and remedies of blur 29814.10.2 Systems with decreased blur 31014.10.2.1 Edge enhancement for reduced blur 31014.10.2.2 Black insertion techniques 31214.10.2.3 Scanning backlights 31314.10.2.4 Higher frame rates for reducing blur 31514.10.3 Modelling of blur 32014.11 The Optical Response of a VA Cell 32914.12 Reduction of the Optical Response Time by a Special Addressing Waveform 33415 Addressing of LCDs with Poly-Si TFTs 33915.1 Fabrication Steps for Top- and Bottom-Gate Poly-Si TFTs 34015.2 Laser Crystallization by Scanning or Large Area Anneal 34415.3 Lightly Doped Drains for Poly-Si TFTs 34515.4 The Kink Effect and its Suppression 34715.5 Circuits with Poly-Si TFTs 34916 Liquid Crystal on Silicon Displays 35316.1 Fabrication of LCOS with DRAM-Type Analog Addressing 35316.2 SRAM-Type Digital Addressing of LCOS 35516.3 Microdisplays Using LCOS Technology 36017 Addressing of Liquid Crystal Displays with Metal-Insulator-Metal Pixel Switches 36318 Addressing of LCDs with Two-Terminal Devices and Optical, Plasma, Laser and e-beam Techniques 37319 Components of LCD Cells 38119.1 Additive Colours Generated by Absorptive Photosensitive Pigmented Colour Filters 38119.2 Additive and Subtractive Colours Generated by Reflective Dichroic Colour Filters 38319.3 Colour Generation by Three Stacked Displays 38519.4 LED Backlights 38619.4.1 The advantages of LEDs as backlights 38619.4.2 LED technology 38619.4.3 Optics for LED backlights 39519.4.4 Special applications for LED backlights 40519.4.4.1 Saving power and realizing scanning with LED backlights 40519.4.4.2 Field sequential displays with LED backlights 40719.4.4.3 Active matrix addressed LED backlights 40919.4.5 The electronic addressing of LEDs 40919.5 Cell Assembly 41120 Projectors with Liquid Crystal Light Valves 41520.1 Single Transmissive Light Valve Systems 41520.1.1 The basic single light valve system 41520.1.2 The field sequential colour projector 41620.1.3 A single panel scrolling projector 41720.1.4 Single light valve projector with angular colour separation 41820.1.5 Single light valve projectors with a colour grating 41820.2 Systems with Three Light Valves 42020.2.1 Projectors with three transmissive light valves 42020.2.2 Projectors with three reflective light valves 42120.2.3 Projectors with three LCOS light valves 42220.3 Projectors with Two LC Light Valves 42220.4 A Rear Projector with One or Three Light Valves 42220.5 A Projector with Three Optically Addressed Light Valves 42321 Liquid Crystal Displays with Plastic Substrates 42721.1 Advantages of Plastic Substrates 42721.2 Plastic Substrates and their Properties 42821.3 Barrier Layers for Plastic Substrates 42921.4 Thermo-Mechanical Problems with Plastics 43021.5 Fabrication of TFTs and MIMs at Low Process Temperatures 43521.5.1 Fabrication of a-Si:H TFTs at low temperature 43521.5.2 Fabrication of low temperature poly-Si TFTs 43521.5.3 Fabrication of MIMs at low temperature 43721.5.4 Conductors and transparent electrodes for plastic substrates 43821.6 Transfer of High Temperature Fabricated AMLCDs to a Flexible Substrate 43822 Printing of Layers for LC Cells 44322.1 Printing Technologies 44322.1.1 Flexographic printing 44322.1.2 Knife coating 44422.1.3 Ink-jet printing 44422.1.4 Silk screen printing 44822.2 Surface Properties for Printing 44922.3 Printing of Components for Displays 45522.3.1 Ink-jet printed colour filters, alignment layers and phosphors for LED Backlights 45522.3.2 Flexographic printing of alignment layers and of nematic liquid crystals 45622.3.3 Printing of OTFTs 45722.4 Cell Building by Lamination 46123  Advances in TFTs and Structures for Enhancing Mobility24  Fringe-Field Switching (FFS) Technologies 25  Automotive Applications of Liquid Crystal DisplaysAppendix 1: Formats of Flat Panel Displays 463Appendix 2: Optical Units of Displays 465Appendix 3: Properties of Polarized Light 467References 473Index