Life Cycle of Sustainable Packaging

Rafael A. Auras is a Professor in the School of Packaging at Michigan State University. He is a co-editor of both editions of Poly(lactic acid): Synthesis, Structures, Processing, Applications, and End of Life. Susan E.M. Selke is an emeritus Professor and former Director of the School of Packaging at Michigan State University. She is a co-editor of both editions of Poly(lactic acid): Synthesis, Structures, Processing, Applications, and End of Life.

• List of Abbreviations xviiPreface xxiiAbout the Companion Website xxv1 The Role of Packaging in Sustainable Development 11.1 Learning Objectives 11.2 Introduction 11.3 Packaging and Sustainable Development 11.4 Sustainability 51.5 Sustainability Timeline 71.6 United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) 111.7 Sustainability Indicators (SIs) 211.8 Life Cycle Thinking 231.9 Circular Economy 251.10 Packaging for Sustainable Development 261.11 Sustainable Packaging Organizations around the World and Their Criteria 281.12 Tools to Evaluate Sustainable Packaging 291.13 Case Study 1.1. The Living Planet Index (LPI) 301.14 Case Study 1.2. Doughnut Economics 311.15 Study Questions 321.16 Additional Resources 33References 342 Design Thinking: The Packaging Design Process 37Euihark Lee2.1 Learning Objectives 372.2 Introduction 372.2.1 Creativity vs. Innovation 372.2.2 Design of Packaging for Sustainability 392.3 The Design Thinking Process 402.3.1 What Is Design Thinking? 402.3.2 The Five Stages of Design Thinking 412.4 Tools for Thinking about Innovation 422.4.1 Empathy Mapping 422.4.2 Mind Map 432.4.3 Brainstorming 442.5 Packaging Design Process 442.5.1 Applying the Design Process to the Packaging System 442.5.2 Material Selection 452.5.3 Determining Packaging Features 462.5.4 Design Shape 472.5.5 Color and Packaging 492.5.6 Graphics in Packaging 502.5.7 Packaging Design Tools 522.6 Case Study 2.1. Heinz Single-serve Ketchup Dip and Squeeze 542.7 Case Study 2.2. Design for Recyclability 572.8 Study Questions 592.9 Additional Resources 59References 593 Packaging in the Upstream and Downstream Supply Chains 633.1 Learning Objectives 633.2 Introduction 633.3 Resource Use 643.4 Packaging Materials 643.4.1 Metal 653.4.2 Glass 673.4.3 Wood 693.4.4 Paper and Paperboard 703.4.5 Plastics 713.5 Energy 743.5.1 Nonrenewables 753.5.1.1 Petroleum 763.5.1.2 Coal 773.5.1.3 Natural Gas 773.5.1.4 Nuclear 783.5.2 Renewables 783.5.2.1 Biomass 783.5.2.2 Hydropower 793.5.2.3 Wind 793.5.2.4 Solar Energy 793.5.2.5 Geothermal Energy 793.6 Components of the Packaging System 803.6.1 Primary Packaging 803.6.2 Secondary Packaging 803.6.3 Tertiary or Distribution Packaging 803.7 Parameters for Quantifying the Environmental Footprint (EFP) of Packaging Systems 813.8 Case Study 3.1. Cube Efficiency Estimation Using CAPE® 823.9 Study Questions 833.10 Additional Resources 85References 854 Pollution and Risk Management 874.1 Learning Objectives 874.2 Introduction 874.3 Pollution Science 884.4 Risk Assessment and Management 894.4.1 Exposure Assessment 914.4.2 Hazard Identification 934.4.3 Dose–Response Assessment 944.4.4 Risk Characterization 974.4.4.1 Carcinogenic Risks 974.4.4.2 Noncarcinogenic Risks 994.5 Ecological Risk Assessment 1004.6 Microbial Risk Assessment 1014.7 Case Study 4.1. Estimation of the Health Risk of Dichloro diphenyl trichloroethane (DDT) and Polybrominated Diphenyl Ether (PBDE) 1014.8 Study Questions 1024.9 Additional Resources 102References 1025 Soil Pollution 1055.1 Learning Objectives 1055.2 Introduction 1055.3 Surface Mining 1055.4 Deforestation 1065.5 Soil Acidity and Salinity 1075.6 Soil Erosion 1085.7 Agricultural Activities 1085.8 Animal Waste 1115.9 Industrial Waste 1125.10 Invasive Species 1135.11 Case Study 5.1. Kudzu as Invasive Species in the Southern US 1135.12 Study Questions 1145.13 Additional Resources 114References 1146 Water Pollution 1176.1 Learning Objectives 1176.2 Introduction 1176.3 Groundwater 1196.3.1 Point-Source Contamination 1216.3.1.1 Hazardous Organic Chemicals 1256.3.1.2 Landfill 1256.3.2 Diffuse Source Contamination 1266.3.2.1 Agrochemical Contamination 1266.3.2.2 Saltwater Intrusion 1276.3.2.3 Microbial Contamination 1286.3.2.4 Gasoline Additives 1296.3.2.5 Perchlorate 1296.3.2.6 Arsenic 1306.3.2.7 Acid-Mine Drainage 1306.4 Surface Water 1306.4.1 Marine Water Resources 1306.4.2 Sources of Water Pollution 1316.4.3 Sediments as Surface Water Contaminants 1316.4.4 Metals as Surface Water Contaminants 1326.4.4.1 Mercury 1326.4.4.2 Arsenic 1326.4.4.3 Chromium 1326.4.4.4 Selenium 1336.4.5 Nutrients and Eutrophication of Surface Waters 1336.4.6 Organic Compounds in Water 1346.4.7 Enteric Pathogens as Surface Water Contaminants 1346.5 Groundwater and Surface Water Legislation 1356.5.1 Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL) 1366.6 Case Study 6.1. Pine River Contamination Site 1366.7 Case Study 6.2. The Flint Water Crisis 1456.8 Study Questions 1456.9 Additional Resources 146References 1467 Air Pollution 1497.1 Learning Objectives 1497.2 Introduction 1497.3 Primary Air Pollutants 1517.3.1 Carbon Monoxide (CO) 1517.3.2 Hydrocarbons (HCs) 1527.3.3 Particulate Matter (PM) 1527.3.4 Sulfur Dioxide (SO 2) 1537.3.5 Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) 1547.3.6 Lead (Pb) 1547.4 Secondary Pollutants 1567.5 Clean Air Act 1587.6 Case Study 7.1. Air Quality in Delhi, India, in Winter 1617.7 Case Study 7.2. Air Quality in the US in Summer 1637.8 Study Questions 1637.9 Additional Resources 164References 1648 Global Climate Change 1678.1 Learning Objectives 1678.2 Introduction 1678.3 Greenhouse Gases 1698.4 Impacts on Global Climate 1738.5 Climate Change Agreements 1748.6 Case Study 8.1. History of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 1758.7 Study Questions 1768.8 Additional Resources 176References 1779 Life Cycle Assessment 1799.1 Learning Objectives 1799.2 Introduction 1799.3 Provisions of LCA Study 1819.4 Different Approaches to Conduct LCI Studies 1839.5 Steps of an LCA Study 1849.5.1 Goal and Scope Definition of an LCA 1859.5.2 Function, Functional Unit, and Reference Flow 1889.5.3 Life Cycle Inventory Modeling Framework 1909.5.3.1 Flows and Multifunctionality 1909.5.3.2 Completeness/Cut-off and Loops 1999.5.3.3 Provisions for LCI according to Situations A, B, and C of LCA 2009.5.4 Impact Assessment 2009.5.5 Interpretation 2039.5.5.1 Evaluation of the Results 2039.5.5.2 Analysis of the Results 2039.5.5.3 Formulation of Conclusions and Recommendations 2079.6 LCA Software 2079.7 Case Study 9.1. LCA Study of Beverage Packaging Systems 2079.8 Study Questions 2139.9 Additional Resources 214References 21410 Municipal Solid Waste 21710.1 Learning Objectives 21710.2 Introduction 21710.3 World Picture of Municipal Solid Waste 21810.4 Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) 21810.5 Municipal Solid Waste in the US 22310.6 Municipal Solid Waste in Different US States 22510.7 Municipal Solid Waste Management Approaches 22710.8 Case Study 10.1 – Environmental Footprint of PET Bottles Managed According to the US EPA Waste Management Hierarchy 22910.9 Study Questions 23010.10 Additional Resources 230References 23111 Reduction 23311.1 Learning Objectives 23311.2 Introduction 23311.3 Reduction 23411.4 Reduction in Packaging 23411.4.1 Glass 23511.4.2 Metal 23511.4.3 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 23611.4.4 Plastic 23711.5 Case Study 11.1. Bacon Packaging 23911.6 Study Questions 24411.7 Additional Resources 244References 24512 Reuse 24712.1 Learning Objectives 24712.2 Introduction 24712.3 Reuse 24812.4 Reuse in Packaging 25012.4.1 Metal 25212.4.2 Glass 25312.4.3 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 25412.4.4 Plastic 25412.5 Case Study 12.1. Reusable Cups 25612.6 Case Study 12.2. Reusable Plastic Containers (RPC) 25712.7 Study Questions 25912.8 Additional Resources 259References 26013 Recycling 26313.1 Learning Objectives 26313.2 Introduction 26313.3 Requirements for Successful Recycling 26513.3.1 Consumer Engagement 26513.3.1.1 Motivation 26513.3.1.2 Convenience 26713.3.1.3 Education/Publicity 26813.3.2 Collection 26913.3.2.1 Curbside Collection 27013.3.2.2 Multidwelling Collection 27013.3.2.3 Drop-off Sites 27113.3.2.4 Deposit Systems 27113.3.3 Sortation 27713.3.4 Reprocessing 27913.3.5 End Markets 27913.4 Recycling of Packaging Materials 28013.4.1 Closed- and Open-Loop Recycling 28113.5 Metal Recycling 28513.5.1 Steel Recycling 28613.5.2 Aluminum Recycling 28813.6 Glass Recycling 29113.7 Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board Recycling 29413.8 Plastics Recycling 29913.9 Labeling 30613.10 Case Study 13.1. Environmental Footprint of Recycling Polymeric Resins 30713.11 Case Study 13.2. End-of-Life Scenario of PLA, PET, and PS Clamshells 30713.12 Study Questions 31013.13 Additional Resources 311References 31214 Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation 31714.1 Learning Objectives 31714.2 Introduction 31714.3 Aerobic Biodegradation 31914.3.1 Composting 32014.3.1.1 Home/Backyard Composting 32014.3.1.2 Industrial Composting 32014.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Backyard and Industrial Composting Operations 32214.3.2 Agricultural Soils 32414.3.3 Other Mostly Aerobic Degradation Environments 32514.3.3.1 Soil Biodegradation 32514.3.3.2 Aquatic Biodegradation 32614.3.4 Measuring Aerobic Biodegradation 32614.3.5 Standards and Certifications for Aerobic Biodegradable Materials 32714.3.6 Bio-based Carbon Content 33214.4 Anaerobic Biodegradation 33214.4.1 Standards and Certifications for Anaerobic Biodegradable Materials 33514.5 Main Factors Affecting Aerobic and Anaerobic Biodegradation 33514.6 Biodegradation of Packaging Materials 33714.7 Paper Biodegradation 33814.8 Polymer Biodegradation 34114.9 Case Study 14.1. Biodegradation of Poly(butylene adipate-co-terephthalate) – PBAT – Films in Yard, Food, and Manure Compost 34514.10 Case Study 14.2. Anaerobic Degradation of PLA Films 34614.11 Study Questions 34814.12 Additional Resources 350References 35015 Incineration of Municipal Solid Waste with Energy Recovery 35715.1 Learning Objectives 35715.2 Introduction 35715.3 Advantages and Disadvantages of Municipal Solid Waste Incineration 36015.4 Types of Waste Combustion Units 36115.5 Municipal Solid Waste Combustion Plants 36215.6 Refuse Derived Fuel 36415.7 Energy Recovery from Burning MSW 36515.8 Incineration of Metals 36915.9 Incineration of Glass 36915.10 Incineration of Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 37115.11 Incineration of Plastics 37115.12 Case Study 15.1. Burning of Poly(vinyl chloride) – PVC 37415.13 Case Study 15.2. Comparison of Emissions from Waste-to-Energy Facilities with Those from Fossil Fuels and Their Greenhouse Gas Emissions 37415.14 Study Questions 37615.15 Additional Resources 377References 37716 Landfill 38116.1 Learning Objectives 38116.2 Introduction 38116.3 Definition of Terms 38516.4 Advantages and Disadvantages of Disposing Municipal Solid Waste in Landfills 38616.5 Classification of Landfills 38616.5.1 Landfills Regulated under RCRA – Subtitle d 38616.5.1.1 Municipal Solid Waste Landfill 38716.5.1.2 Industrial Waste Landfill (IWLF) 38716.5.2 Landfills Regulated under RcRA – Subtitle c 38816.5.2.1 Hazardous Waste Landfills 38816.5.3 Landfills Regulated under the Toxic Substances Control Act 38816.6 Location, Building, Operation, Closure, and Financial Assurance of Landfills 38916.7 Emissions from Landfills 39116.7.1 Air Emissions 39216.7.2 Leachate 39516.8 Energy Recovery from Landfills 39716.9 Landfilling of Municipal Solid Waste 39716.10 Landfilling of Metals 40016.11 Landfilling of Glass 40216.12 Landfilling of Paper, Paperboard, and Corrugated Board 40416.13 Landfilling of Plastics 40416.14 Case Study 16.1. Landfilling of Yard Trimmings 40616.15 Case Study 16.2. Evaluation of Biodegradation of Polyethylene and Poly(ethylene terephthalate) in Simulated Landfill Environments 40716.16 Study Questions 40816.17 Additional Resources 409References 41017 Litter and Marine Pollution 41317.1 Learning Objectives 41317.2 Introduction 41317.3 Litter in the US and around the World 41417.4 Marine Litter 41617.4.1 Shoreline and Beach Litter 41717.4.2 Oceans and Gyres 41717.4.3 Litter in Other Bodies of Water 41917.4.4 Cleanup and Prevention 41917.4.5 Sources of Ocean Plastics 42017.5 Litter and Wildlife 42017.6 Microplastics 42117.7 Biodegradability and Litter 42217.8 Case Study 17.1. Emission of Plastic from Rivers to the World’s Oceans 42217.9 Case Study 17.2. Presence of Microplastics in Drinking Water and Food 42317.10 Study Questions 42617.11 Additional Resources 426References 42618 Keeping in Perspective 42918.1 Learning Objectives 42918.2 Introduction 42918.3 Environmental Footprint of Primary, Secondary, and Tertiary Packaging Systems 43018.4 Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package System 43118.5 The Role of Packaging in Waste Creation 43318.6 Impact of Transportation on the Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package 43418.7 Impact of Consumer Behavior on Waste Creation and the Environmental Footprint of the Product/Package System 43518.8 Impact of End-of-life Scenarios on the Environmental Footprint of Packaging Systems 43618.9 Case Study 18.1. Environmental Footprint of Milk Package Containers in the US 43918.10 Case Study 18.2. The Perceived and Actual Environmental Footprint of Glass, Plastic, and Aluminum Beverage Packaging 43918.11 Study Questions 44318.12 Additional Resources 444References 444Index 447