Lex Ad Astra

Matthew Gillett, Ph.D. (2018), Leiden University, is a Senior Lecturer (Associate Professor) of Law at Essex Law School and the United Nations Chair-Rapporteur of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention. He has published extensively on international law, human rights, and environmental protection.Katja Grünfeld is a Research Assistant and PhD Candidate at the Institute of Air Law, Space Law and Cyber Law at the University of Cologne, Group Leader of Working Group Space for the Institute/DLR Project Cologne Manual on the International Law of Space Traffic Management, Member of the Space Law Committee of the International Law Association, and Prospective Member of the International Institute of Space Law with multiple publications in the field of space law.Iva Ramuš Cvetkovič is a Researcher and Assistant at the Institute of Criminology at the Faculty of Law Ljubljana, and a PhD scholar at the Faculty of Law, University of Ljubljana.

• PrefaceAcknowledgementsNotes on Authors1 Introduction: Regulating Space Pollution by Non-state Actors (nsa s) under International Law1 Setting the Parameters for the Study of nsa Accountability2 Defining the Key Terms3 The Escalating Threat of nsa Space Pollution4 Space Law Has Been Designed State-entrically4.1 Conventional Instruments4.2 Soft Law Instruments4.3 Conclusion on the State-Centric Formation of International Space Law5 The Limited Scholarly Attention Given to Regulating nsa Space Pollution5.1 Conceptual Underpinnings of the Increasing Recognition of nsa s as Subjects and Objects of International Law5.2 The Need for Scholarly Analysis of nsa Responsibility for Space Pollution2 Gateway Considerations for the Application of International Law to Space Pollution1 The Quest to Discern a Prohibition of Space Pollution1.1 Does International Space Law Prohibit Space Pollution?1.2 Does International Environmental Law Prohibit Space Pollution?1.2.1 No-Harm Principle1.2.2 Precautionary Principle1.2.3 Principle of Sustainable Development1.2.4 Principle of Intergenerational Equity1.2.5 Principle of Common-but-Differentiated Responsibilities1.2.6 Polluter-Pays Principle1.2.7 The Principle of Permanent Sovereignty over Natural Resources1.2.8 Other Bases under International Environmental Law to Prohibit Space Pollution1.2.9 Conclusion on International Environmental Law1.3 The Relevance of the Human Right to a Clean, Healthy and Sustainable Environment2 Conclusion regarding a Prohibition of Space Pollution3 The Classical Approach: Regulating nsa Space Pollution via State Responsibility1 The Outer Space Treaty and nsa s: Key Provisions1.1 Article ix1.2 Article vi1.3 Article vii1.4 Article viii2 Problems Arising from the Exclusive Focus on States to Ensure nsa Accountability4 The New Horizon: Direct nsa Accountability under International Law for Space Pollution1 Two Case Studies Exemplifying the New Threat Emanating from nsa s1.1 Profit-Driven nsa s1.2 Politically-Motivated Violent nsa s2 The Direct Application of International Law to nsa s regarding Space Pollution2.1 Space Law2.2 International Criminal Law2.3 International Humanitarian Law2.4 International Human Rights Law2.5 International Environmental Law2.6 Private International Law2.7 Conclusion on Alternative International Law Domains3 Operationalizing nsa Accountability for Space Pollution: Fora in Which to Proceed against nsa s under International Law3.1 International Courts and Institutions3.2 Domestic Courts Acting under Universal Jurisdiction3.3 Domestic Courts Acting under Extra-Territorial Jurisdiction5 Domestic and Regional Practice: Legislation, Enforcement Frameworks, and Jurisprudence1 Oceanic States1.1 Australia1.2 New Zealand2 European States2.1 The European Space Agency2.1.1 The European Union2.1.2 France2.1.3 Germany2.1.4 Austria2.1.5 Slovenia2.1.6 Luxembourg2.1.7 Belgium2.1.8 Finland2.1.9 Denmark2.1.10 Italy2.1.11 The Netherlands2.1.12 Norway2.1.13 Portugal2.1.14 Sweden2.1.15 United Kingdom2.1.16 Greece3 North American States3.1 United States of America3.2 Canada4 Eastern European (Non-EU) and Central Eurasian States4.1 The Russian Federation4.2 Kazakhstan4.3 Ukraine4.4 Armenia5 South American States5.1 Brazil5.2 Costa Rica5.3 Peru6 Asian States6.1 Japan6.2 Republic of Korea6.3 China6.4 India6.5 Indonesia7 Middle Eastern States7.1 United Arab Emirates8 African States8.1 South Africa8.2 Kenya8.3 Nigeria9 Additional States with Regulatory Mechanisms Concerning Space Activities10 International Law Association Model Law for Domestic Systems11 Conclusions on Domestic and Regional Practice6 Lex ferenda: Normative Options to Redress Future nsa Space Pollution1 Retrenchment2 Re-interpretation3 Reform4 Conclusions regarding Options to Redress the Gap in Space Law Regarding nsa s5 Insights from the Avenues for Redress regarding the Nature of International Law7 Overall Conclusions: An Emerging Threat that Tests the Underpinnings of International LawAnnex: Proposed New Protocol to the Outer Space Treaty of 1967 Addressing nsa Responsibility for Space PollutionBibliographyIndex