ISE Biological Anthropology: Concepts and Connections

Agustín Fuentes completed a B.A. in Zoology and Anthropology, and an M.A.& Ph.D. in Anthropology at the University of California, Berkeley. His research and teaching interests include the evolution of social complexity in human and primate societies, conflict negotiation across primates, including humans, and reproductive behavior and ecology. He is also interested in issues of human-nonhuman primate interactions, disease and pathogen transfer. Fuentes’ recent work includes publications such as “It’s Not All Sex and Violence: Integrated Anthropology and the Role of Cooperation and Social Complexity in Human Evolution” in the American Anthropologist, “Re-visiting conflict resolution: Is there a role for emphasizing negotiation and cooperation instead of conflict and reconciliation?” in R. Sussman and A. Chapman Eds., The Origins and Nature of Sociality Aldine de Gruyter, Pub. He has published two edited volumes and is currently in the process of finishing three other texts. His current research projects include assessing behavior and disease transmission in human-monkey interactions in Asia and Gibraltar and examining the roles of cooperation, social negotiation, and patterns of niche construction in human evolution.

• PREFACE xviABOUT THE AUTHOR xxiIntroductionFAQs For Biological Anthropology   3How Old Is the Planet and What Organisms Have Lived on It Over That Time? 3If Life on Our Planet Has Changed So Much Over Time, What About the Planet Itself? 6Have Humans Changed? 6Where Did Modern Science Come From? 7Where Is Uzbekistan? 8Chapter 1 Introduction to Evolutionary Fact and Theory  13Anthropology Is the Study of Human and Nonhuman Primates 15Anthropology Is a Scientific Discipline 16Critical Thinking Is the Systematic Assessment of Information 16The Scientific Method Is a Way of Testing Ideas About the World Around Us 18Connections: That’s a Fact, Jack . . . Or Is It? 19Scientific Investigation Is a Collaborative Process 21Evolutionary Theory Is the Cornerstone of Anthropology 22Evolution Is Both Fact and Theory 22Connections: Making a Monkey Out of You? 22Early Explanations of Life Were Both Philosophical and Religious 23The Scientific Revolution Opened the Door to Systematic Study of the World 25Evolutionary Thought Emerged From Scientific Collaboration 26Charles Darwin Proposed Natural Selection as the Mechanism of Evolution 31Connections: Can You Understand Evolution and Be Religious? 39What We Know/Questions That Remain 40Summary 40Critical Thinking 41Resources 42References 43Chapter 2 Basics of Human Biology 45The Place of Human Beings in Nature 47Where Do Humans Fit In? 47Connections: Why Do Monkeys Look Like Little People and Our Dogs Understand Us? 47How Are Relationships Among Organisms Determined? 48Human Morphology: The Body’s Form and Structure 49Tissues Cover Us and Bind Us Together 49The Skeleton: Our Basic Form 50The Musculature Interacts With the Skeleton 55Connections: My Bones Ache... 55All Mammals Share Common Skeletal Structures 55Human Physiology: The Systems of the Body 57The Circulatory and Respiratory Systems Transport Nutrients and More 57The Nervous System and Brain Control the Actions of the Body and Assess theOrganism’s Surroundings 58The Endocrine System Regulates and Communicates Hormonal InformationThroughout the Body 60The Digestive System Processes Nutrients 61The Reproductive System Enables Us to Produce Offspring 62Connections: Whoa, Where Did That Come From? The FascinatingDevelopment of Human Genitals 64All of These Systems (and More) Are Interconnected 64What We Know/Questions That Remain 65Summary 66Critical Thinking 66Resources 67Chapter 3 Introduction to Genetics and Genomics 69Heredity Is the Passing of Genetic Information From Generation to Generation 70Connections: “Gene”—What Is in a Word? 71DNA Is the Molecule of Heredity 72DNA Is Found in Cells 72DNA Has a Specific Structure 73DNA Has Three Main Functions 74Connections: Why It Is Important to Understand What DNA Does 82Mendel’s Basic Model of Inheritance 82Traits Are Passed From Generation to Generation 82Mendel’s Work Continues to Inform Current Knowledge 84The Relationship Between Genes and Traits Is Complex 85Four Ways Genes Produce Traits 86Are There Specific Genes for Certain Diseases? 87Most DNA Doesn’t Appear to Do Anything! 87Does DNA Cause Certain Behaviors? 88Connections: My Genes Made Me Do It! 88Population Genetics Helps Us Understand Evolution 89What We Know/Questions That Remain 90Summary 91Critical Thinking 91Resources 92References 93 Chapter 4 Modern Evolutionary Theory 95Evolutionary Change Occurs In Populations In Four Ways 96Mutations Are Changes in the DNA 98Gene Flow Is the Movement of Alleles Within and Between Populations 99Genetic Drift Is a Change in Allele Frequency Across Generations Due to Random Factors 100Current Concepts of Natural Selection Involve an Understanding of Genetics 101Connections: Survival of the Fittest? Not Really 104Speciation Is the Process by Which New Species Arise 108Species Can Be Defined in Many Ways 108Connections: Species, Schmeecies . . . I Know One When I See It and So Do They 109Subspecies Are Divisions Within a Species 110Phyletic Gradualism and Punctuated Equilibrium: Different Paces of Change 111Similarities Can Result From Either Parallel or Convergent Evolution 112Biodiversity in Evolution: Why We Should Care About Biological Variation 113Connections: Why Conserve Stuff Anyway? 114What We Know/Questions That Remain 115Summary 115Critical Thinking 116Resources 117References 117 Chapter 5 Primate Behavioral Ecology 119Comparative Primatology Provides Insights Into Modern Human Behavior 120The Living Primates Are Widespread and Diverse 120Comparing the Primates Helps Us Understand Behavior 127Connections: Monkey See, Monkey Do, and Humans Too? 129To Study Behavior, We Have to Measure It 129Specific Methodologies Are Used to Measure Primate Behavior 129A Behavior Can Be Viewed From Five Perspectives 130Behavior and Genetics Are Interconnected 131Behavioral Ecology Provides the Basis for Evolutionary Investigations of Behavior 132Socioecological Pressures Affect Organisms in Five Areas 132Success of a Behavioral Adaptation Is Measured in Terms of Energy Costsand Benefits 133Reality Is More Complex Than Suggested by Cost-Benefit Analyses 135Connections: Are All Men Jerks? 136General Behavior Patterns in the Living Primates 137Mother-Infant Bonds Are the Core of Primate Societies 137There Are a Few Primary Grouping Patterns in Primates 138Affiliation and Grooming Are Important in Primate Societies 138Hierarchies and Dominance Help Structure Primate Societies 139Dispersal and Life History Patterns Are Important to Social Behavior 140Cooperation and Conflict Are Integral to Primate Societies 141Social Organization in Two Nonhuman Primate Societies: Macaques and Chimpanzees 141Macaques: A Widespread Primate Genus 141Chimpanzees: Our Closest Relatives 146Humans Are Also Primates, and Human Behavior Has an Evolutionary History 151Social Organization and Behavior in Humans 152Comparisons With Macaques 152Comparisons With Chimpanzees 153What Is Uniquely Human? 154Connections: Why We Never Shut Up 154What We Know/Questions That Remain 155Conserving the Nonhuman Primates Is a Critical Challenge 156Summary 156Critical Thinking 157Resources 158References 158 Chapter 6 Early Primate Evolution 161Fossils Provide Direct Evidence of an Organism’s Existence 162Humans Are Members of the Order of Mammals Called Primates 165A Very Brief History of the Mammals 165Connections: Homiothermy is Cool! 167Primates Are Mammals With Specific Characteristics 167The Fossil Primates 168The Earliest Possible Primates Are Found in the Paleocene 168Why Did Primates Evolve Out of Early Mammalian Groups? 170True Primates Appear in the Eocene 171Anthropoids (Simiiformes) Radiate in the Oligocene 173Connections: Why Care About 30-Million-Year-Old Dead Primates? 174Hominoid Primates Radiate During the Miocene 176Connections: Ok, So Is Gigantopithecus Bigfoot? 181Nonhominoid Anthropoid Primates Radiate During the Pliocene and Pleistocene 182Evolutionary Relationships Among These Fossil Primates Area Matter of Debate 182What We Know/Questions That Remain 184Summary 184Critical Thinking 185Resources 185References 186 Chapter 7 Early Hominin Evolution 189Connections: Why Walking on Two Legs Makes Birth Painful for Mom 191Classification of Hominids/Hominins Is a Subject of Debate 191Early Hominins Evolved Primarily in East Africa 195Early Possible Hominins 196Hominins of the Middle and Late Pliocene Were Bipedal and Sexually Dimorphic 200Connections: Big Guys With Small Teeth Rock! 203Were There Early Hominins in Southern Africa? 205Evolutionary Relationships Are Unclear 205Fossils Give Us Clues About Early Hominin Behavior 206Habitat: Where They Lived 207Diet: What Did They Eat, and How Did They Get It? 207Tools: Did They Use Bone, Wood, or Stone Tools? 207Social Life: How Did They Live Together? 208The Bipedalism That Wasn’t 208Connections: Hyenas, Wolves, and Saber-Toothed Cats, Oh My! 209The Evolution of Bipedality Has Several Possible Explanations 209What We Know/Questions That Remain 211Summary 212Critical Thinking 213Resources 213References 214 Chapter 8 Plio-Pleistocene Hominins and the Genus Homo 217Changes at the Late Pliocene-Pleistocene Boundary 219The Robust Hominins Had Unique Cranial and Dental Anatomy 220The Genus Paranthropus: Hominins With Massive Chewing Adaptations 220 Robust Hominin Behavior 225The Gracile Hominins Shared Characteristics With Both Earlier and Later Groups 226Genus Australopithecus: Three Plio-Pleistocene Forms 226Are These Australopithecines Ancestral to Humans? 230Early Homo: A New Genus Emerges 231Connections: Where Is the Missing Link? 232Gracile Hominin Behavior and the Advent of Biocultural Evolution 235The Genus Homo Diversifies: The First Humans 237A Classification Debate: One Genus but How Many Species? 238Physical Characteristics of H. erectus 240Geographic Distribution of H. erectus 241Connections: Is that You Frodo? Ardi? 243When Did Hominins Expand Beyond Africa? 245Why Did Hominins Expand Beyond Africa? 246erectus Material Culture and the Expansion of the Biocultural Evolution 246Connections: What’s the Deal With Fire? 250What We Know/Questions That Remain 251Summary 252Critical Thinking 253Resources 253References 254 Chapter 9 The Rise of Modern Humans 257Archaic Homo Sapiens and the Changing Speed of Innovation 259The Oldest Archaic Human Fossils Are Found in Africa 259Archaic Human Fossils Are Found Across Eurasia 261Archaic Humans Are Found in China but Not in Southeast Asia 262Is Homo heidelbergensis a True Species? 264The Neanderthals Were Not as Different as First Thought, but They Were Different 264Connections: I’m No Neanderthal! 266Material Culture of the Archaic Humans 267Increased Complexity in Tool Use and Hunting 267Dietary and Behavior Changes Associated With New Tool Kits 268Social Patterns: High Levels of Communal Cooperation 269Postmortem Modification of Bodies 270Why Did the Neanderthals Disappear? 270The Appearance of “Anatomically Modern” Homo sapiens 272Anatomically Modern Humans Are Defined Morphologically, Not Behaviorally 272The Earliest Anatomically Modern Fossils Are Found in Africa 273The Eurasian Record Demonstrates the Spread of Modern Humans 274Blades and Associated Industries Revolutionized the Human Tool Kit 277Changing Technologies and Behavioral Patterns Affected Diet 279Modern Humans Used Art and Symbols 279Connections: Art for Art’s Sake? 281Burial of the Dead Was Ubiquitous and Postmortem Modification Common 282Connections: Why We Love Our Dogs (At Least Some of Us Do) 282Current Human Patterns Began to Emerge 20,000 Years Ago 283The Origin of Modern Humans Is a Matter of Debate 283The Case for a Recent African Origin 284The Case for Multiregional Evolution 287The Case for Multiple Dispersals 288As Usual, Reality Is Not This Clear 289What We Know/Questions That Remain 290These Models Influence the Way We Think About Human Differences 291Summary 291Critical Thinking 292Resources 293References 293 Chapter 10 Human Biological Diversity in Context 297A Basic Summary of Human Evolution: The Origin of Behavioral and Biological Diversity 299Humans Have Long Exhibited Biological Diversity 300A Visible but Misunderstood Variation: Skin “Color” 301Connections: Everyone Tans! But Skin Color is Still Culturally Defined 302Another Visible Difference: Body Shape and Size 305A Cornerstone of Variation Research: Skull Morphology 307Connections: Skulls Are Us? 307Sex Differences Are Seen in the Skeletal and Soft Tissue of Humans 309The Impact of Disease Environments: Variation in the Human Immune System 311Blood Groups Vary Within and Across Populations 312Most Genetic Variation Is Found Within Populations 314Human Biological Diversity Is Best Explained Using a Biocultural Approach 315Natural Selection and Human Cultural Behavior 316Examples of Selection and Adaptation in Human Variation 317Race Is A Very Poor Way to Describe Variation In Homo Sapiens Sapiens 321What Is the Evidence Regarding Biological Races in Humans? 322Connections: Is High Blood Pressure a Black Thing? 324There Is a Scientific Study of Human Biological Variation 325Why Does the Notion of Biological Race Persist? 326A Very Brief History of Racism 326Modern Notions Are Also Due to a Lack of Context 328What We Know/Questions That Remain 331Summary 332Critical Thinking 332Resources 333References 334 Chapter 11 The Present and Future of Human Evolution 337How Do We Study Human Behavioral Evolution? 338Sociobiology 338Human Behavioral Ecology (HBE) 339Evolutionary Psychology (EP) 339Dual-Inheritance Theory (DIT) 340Biocultural Approaches to Studying Modern Humans 341A Modern Approach to Studying the Evolution (Past and Future) of Human Behavior 341Humans Are Still Evolving 343Diseases and Modern Humans 343Connections: Can Evolutionary Perspectives Be Applied to Modern Medicine? 346Cultural Patterns Influence Morphology 348Culture, Evolution, and the Future: Where Are We Headed? 352Human Densities and Global Population Are Dramatically Different Today 352Genetic Manipulation Can Influence Our Evolution 356Connections: Where Is That Banana From? 357Some of Our Behavior Reflects Adaptations 357Understanding Biological Anthropology and Understanding Ourselves 358What We Know/Questions That Remain 359Summary 359