Introduction to Humans in Engineered Systems

ROGER W. REMINGTON is a professor and Vice-Chancellor's Research Fellow in the School of Psychology at The University of Queensland. DEBORAH A. BOEHM-DAVIS is a University Professor in the Department of Psychology and Associate Dean in the College of Humanities and Social Sciences at George Mason University. CHARLES L. FOLK is a professor in the Department of Psychology and Director of the Cognitive Science Program at Villanova University.

• Preface xiiiPart I Historical Perspective 1References 41 Natural and Engineered Systems 7Purposeful Design 7User-Centered Design 8Design against Failure 10Summary 12References 122 Historical Roots 14Engineering for Physical Limitations 14Size 14Strength 17Speed and Efficiency 17Engineering for Human Cognition 21Writing 21Number Systems 24Point-and-Click Interfaces 25The Modern Era 25Aviation 26The Digital Computer 28A Fractured Field 30Human Factors/Ergonomics 31Human-Computer Interaction 33Human-Systems Integration 33Summary 34References 343 The Current Practice 37Aerospace 38The Human-System Specialist in Aerospace 39Medicine 40The Human-System Specialist in Medicine 42Automotive Industry 42The Human-System Specialist in the Automotive Industry 43Computer Industry 43The Human-System Specialist in Human-Computer Interfaces 44Summary 44References 45Part II The Environment 49References 514 The Varied Nature of Environments 53Static vs. Dynamic Domains 54Sources of Difficulty in Static Environments 56Modes 56Comprehension 57Sources of Difficulty in Dynamic Environments 58Lag 58Plant Dynamics 59Control Order 63Perturbation and Noise 66Internal vs. External Pacing 67Error Tolerance 68Summary 69References 695 The Social Context 71Methodological Consequences of Group Size 74Length/Variability of Response Times 74Methods of Study and Analysis 75Communication and Coordination Consequences of Group Size 76Summary 79References 806 Analysis Techniques 81Modeling Static Environments: Finite State Representations 82Modeling Dynamic Environments 84Control Theory 85Signal Detection Theory 88Task Analysis 93Measuring Complexity Using Information Theory 94Modeling Throughput Using Queuing Theory 97Summary 99References 99Part III The Human Element 101References 1037 Determinants of Human Behavior 105The Human Factor 106Structure and Content 107Levels of Analysis 109Summary 111References 1118 The Structure of Human Information Processing 113Processing Stages 115Cognition and Action 117Cognition and Goal-Directed Behavior 119Response Selection 119The Hick-Hyman Law 120Compatibility 123The Nature of Capacity Limitations 125Summary 126References 1269 Acquiring Information 127Sensory Processing 127Vision 127Illumination 128Reflectance of the Surface 128Reflectance of Surrounding Surfaces 131Anatomy of the Eye 131Visual Acuity 132Acuity and Retinal Eccentricity 135Adaptation 138Saccadic Eye Movements 139Temporal Vision 141Masking and Crowding 141The What and Where of Vision 142Summary 143Color Vision 143CIE Color Space 144The Uses of Color 147Audition 147The Human Auditory System 149Auditory Perception 150Pitch, Masking, and Critical Bands 152Auditory Localization 153Auditory-Visual Cross-Modal Interactions 154Sensory Processing Summary 157Attention 157Selective Attention 157The Cocktail Party Phenomenon and Echoic Memory 158Iconic Memory in Vision 159Resource and Data Limits 160The Capacity of Attention 163The Processing of Unattended Items 163Controlling Attention 164Visual Search 164Visual Monitoring 170Information Foraging Theory 170Summary 171References 17210 Central Processing Limitations on Multitasking 181Bottleneck Theories 181Central Bottleneck Theory 182The Psychological Refractory Period Paradigm 183Central Bottleneck Theory and Driving 185Central Bottleneck Theory and Human-Computer Interaction 187Fitts’ Law 189Project Ernestine 190Capacity Theories 191Complexity in Resource Allocation 191Allocation of Limited-Capacity Resources 192Multiple Resource Theory 195Using Multiple Resource Theory 198Applications of Single-Channel and Multiple Resource Theories 200Timesharing 201Task-Switching Costs 201Cognitive Operations in Task Switching 202Timesharing Strategies and the Control of Processing 203Speed-Accuracy Trade-Off 204Optimal Strategies 205Summary 205References 20611 Memory 210Types of Memories 210Short-Term Memory 211Working Memory 213Long-Term Memory 215Episodic versus Semantic Memory 217Retaining and Forgetting Information 218Interference 220Forgetting to Remember to Remember: Prospective Memory 223Retrieving Information 224Short-Term Memory Retrieval 225Long-Term Memory Retrieval 226Summary 230References 23112 Decision Making 236Anatomy of a Decision 236Normative Approaches to Decision Making 239Rational Decisions 240Bayes Theorem 240Utility and Expected Value 242Nonoptimality of Human Decisions 243Failure to Consider Base Rate Information 244Judging Numerical Quantities 245Failure to Appreciate Statistical Properties 245Cognitive Approaches to Decision Making 246Confirmation Bias 247Framing Effects 248Overconfidence 249Heuristics in Human Decisions 250Availability 250Representativeness 251Anchoring 253The Use of Heuristics 254Other Influences on Decision Making 254Process Models of Human Decision Making 256Naturalistic Decision Making 259Relationship between Decision-Making Models and Systems Engineering 262Summary 263References 263Part IV Human-System Integration 267References 26913 A Case Study in Human-System Performance: The Exxon Valdez 271An Account of the Grounding of the Tankship Exxon Valdez 272The Nature of the Error 274Mode Errors 274Control Dynamics and Detection Times 276Time Estimation 277Decision Biases 278Multitasking 279Summary 281References 28214 Human Error 284Human Error and System Error 284The Nature of Human Error 285Theories of Human Error 288Error Types 289Error Forms 290Situation Awareness 292Situation Awareness in Individuals 292Situation Awareness of Teams 294Cognitive Processing in Establishing Situation Awareness 295Measuring Situation Awareness 296Inferring Situation Awareness from Eye Fixation Patterns 299Summary of Situation Awareness 300Summary 301References 30115 Contextual Factors AffectingHuman-System Performance 307Workload 307Defining and Measuring Workload 308Performance-Based Metrics 308Cognitive Task Analysis 313Physiological Indices of Workload 316Subjective Ratings of Workload 318Workload Summary 320Interruption 320Operator State 323Fatigue 324Sleep Deprivation and Circadian Rhythms 326Summary 327References 32716 The Role of Automation in Human-System Performance 339Using Automated Devices 341Levels of Automation 343A Taxonomy of Automation Levels 345Automation as a Decision Support Aid 348Automation and System Safety 352Summary 354References 3540Alarms and Alerts 360Sensory Characteristics of Good Alerts and Alarms 361Design Considerations in Alerts and Alarms 362Human Factors Issues with Alerts and Alarms 363Information Displays 364Transform Information to Take Advantage of Human Perceptual Systems 365Match Perceptual Cues to the Nature of the Judgment 365Choose Perceptual Depictions Compatible with Internal Representations 367Provide Feedback 371Use Presentation Techniques That Minimize Demand for Focal Visual Attention 372Use Perceptual Distinctions That Match Visual and Auditory Capabilities 372Apply the Proximity Compatibility Principle 374Create Barriers 374Summary 377References 377Index 383