Marianne Chouteau is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, France, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Specializing in imagination and representations of technology, her research interests include innovation and ethics.Joëlle Forest is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is responsible for research conducted within the framework of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests focus on the mode of existence of innovations.Céline Nguyen is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire SaintGobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests include the analysis of narratives and representations surrounding technology and innovation.

• Introduction: The P.S.I. Approach to Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation xiMarianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENChapter 1. Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 1Joëlle FOREST1.1. Introduction 11.2. Why bring up the question of meaning? 21.2.1. The meaning of innovation: an old question 21.2.2. The illusion of meaning 51.3. The P.S.I. approach (Penser le Sens de l’Innovation) 141.3.1. The question of meaning considered from the point of view of direction and signification 141.3.2. The P.S.I. approach: a philosophy of and for action 201.4. References 25Chapter 2. Curiosity Killed the Cat 29Marianne CHOUTEAU2.1. Introduction 292.2. Origins, functions, definitions 292.2.1. The origins of observation: ethnology, anthropology and sociology 292.2.2. Did you say “observation”? 312.3. Observing in order to innovate 332.3.1. What existing approaches tell us 342.3.2. Observation and the P.S.I. approach 362.4. Applications 422.4.1. Proven know-how 432.4.2. Observing in order to find an idea: allowing yourself to be surprised 472.4.3. Observing in order to identify the problem 482.4.4. Checking your idea/concept 492.5. Conclusion 502.6. References 50Chapter 3. Identifying and Defining a Meaningful Problem 53Céline NGUYEN3.1. Introduction 533.2. The “problem” of the problem 543.2.1. The problem in design science 543.2.2. Design Thinking, or defining the problem from the user’s point of view 563.2.3. Sociological extensions around the user 583.3. What are the issues of meaning about the problem? 613.3.1. A central issue: avoiding failures 613.3.2. Textbook case studies 623.4. What should we do? 683.4.1. Informing the problem: monitoring tools 693.4.2. Defining the problem well 743.5. Conclusion 783.6. References 78Chapter 4. Outlining the Meaning of Innovation Using Cartography 81Marianne CHOUTEAU4.1. Introduction 814.2. History, definitions and concepts 814.2.1. Some historical elements 814.2.2. Definitions and concepts834.3. Issues linked to cartography in regard to innovation 864.3.1. Outlining trends using cartography, getting inspired, finding meaning with mood boards 864.3.2. Outlining to represent user needs using cartography 884.3.3. Outlining the imaginary using cartography 894.4. Applications 924.4.1. Mapping the world of the object to get inspiration and thinking about the meaning of innovation 924.4.2. Mapping the imaginary to think about the political meaning of innovation 924.4.3. Mapping the imaginary to experiment with ethics 944.4.4. Comparing the designer’s signification of innovation with the user’s signification of innovation via the empathy map 964.5. Conclusion 964.6. References 96Chapter 5. Bringing Meanings to Life 99Joëlle FOREST5.1. Introduction 995.2. Creativity representations 1005.2.1. From the register of the inexplicable… 1015.2.2. … to creativity as a process 1035.2.3. Russian doll processes 1055.2.4. Updating creative rationality 1065.3. Creativity issues 1085.3.1. Creativity and business performance 1085.3.2. Incremental versus radical innovation 1105.4. Key ingredients for creativity 1125.4.1. Getting beyond the fixation effect 1135.4.2. Encouraging unexpected connections 1155.4.3. Suspending judgment and opening up the field of possibilities 1165.4.4. The art of selection 1165.5. Conclusion 1205.6. References 121Chapter 6. In Search of Hidden or Lost Meaning 125Céline NGUYEN6.1. Introduction 1256.2. Collecting data through interviews 1256.2.1. A method that dates back more than a century 1266.2.2. Innovation management 1276.3. Thoughts on the meaning of an innovation: some examples 1296.3.1. Validating the signification of need from an existing product 1306.3.2. Interpreting signification for society: back to the videophone 1306.4. Applications 1326.4.1. Encouraging the assignment of meaning 1326.4.2. Organizing and analyzing meaning 1346.4.3. Accessing meaning 1416.5. Conclusion 1446.6. References 144Chapter 7. Intermediary Representations as a Vector for Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 147Joëlle FOREST7.1. Introduction 1477.2. From the representation of the product to that of the meaning of innovation 1487.2.1. Multiple representation modes mobilized in design 1497.2.2. From the representation of functions to that of the meaning of the innovative concept 1527.3. Issues of intermediary representations in the innovation process 1547.3.1. Intermediary representations at the service of the designer 1547.3.2. Intermediary representations at the service of the actors involved in the design process 1567.3.3. Intermediary representations to test signification with users 1577.3.4. Economic and societal stakes of intermediary representations in design 1597.4. Implementations 1607.4.1. Acting to think 1617.4.2. Think to act 1637.4.3. Developing the test procedure 1657.5. Conclusion 1677.6. References 168Chapter 8. What if Innovation were Recounted to Me? 171Marianne CHOUTEAU and Céline NGUYEN8.1. Introduction 1718.2. Narrative functions 1728.2.1. Universality and functions of the narrative 1728.2.2. Strong links between innovation and stories 1738.2.3. What other approaches do with storytelling 1758.3. Issues and examples for thinking about meaning 1788.3.1. For the designer, inspiring stories 1798.3.2. Storytelling to understand the signification of a problem 1798.3.3. Stories to generate meaning for society 1808.4. Applications 1838.4.1. Choosing the direction of innovation with a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1838.4.2. Excluding directions from a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1848.4.3. Writing prospective narratives to think about the future of society (for the designer) 1858.4.4. Writing narratives to understand the user’s intended signification 1868.4.5. Enhancing an innovative concept using storytelling 1878.5. Conclusion 1888.6. References 188Conclusion 191Marianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENIndex 197

Marianne Chouteau is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, France, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Specializing in imagination and representations of technology, her research interests include innovation and ethics.Joëlle Forest is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is responsible for research conducted within the framework of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests focus on the mode of existence of innovations.Céline Nguyen is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire SaintGobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests include the analysis of narratives and representations surrounding technology and innovation.

• Introduction: The P.S.I. Approach to Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation xiMarianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENChapter 1. Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 1Joëlle FOREST1.1. Introduction 11.2. Why bring up the question of meaning? 21.2.1. The meaning of innovation: an old question 21.2.2. The illusion of meaning 51.3. The P.S.I. approach (Penser le Sens de l’Innovation) 141.3.1. The question of meaning considered from the point of view of direction and signification 141.3.2. The P.S.I. approach: a philosophy of and for action 201.4. References 25Chapter 2. Curiosity Killed the Cat 29Marianne CHOUTEAU2.1. Introduction 292.2. Origins, functions, definitions 292.2.1. The origins of observation: ethnology, anthropology and sociology 292.2.2. Did you say “observation”? 312.3. Observing in order to innovate 332.3.1. What existing approaches tell us 342.3.2. Observation and the P.S.I. approach 362.4. Applications 422.4.1. Proven know-how 432.4.2. Observing in order to find an idea: allowing yourself to be surprised 472.4.3. Observing in order to identify the problem 482.4.4. Checking your idea/concept 492.5. Conclusion 502.6. References 50Chapter 3. Identifying and Defining a Meaningful Problem 53Céline NGUYEN3.1. Introduction 533.2. The “problem” of the problem 543.2.1. The problem in design science 543.2.2. Design Thinking, or defining the problem from the user’s point of view 563.2.3. Sociological extensions around the user 583.3. What are the issues of meaning about the problem? 613.3.1. A central issue: avoiding failures 613.3.2. Textbook case studies 623.4. What should we do? 683.4.1. Informing the problem: monitoring tools 693.4.2. Defining the problem well 743.5. Conclusion 783.6. References 78Chapter 4. Outlining the Meaning of Innovation Using Cartography 81Marianne CHOUTEAU4.1. Introduction 814.2. History, definitions and concepts 814.2.1. Some historical elements 814.2.2. Definitions and concepts834.3. Issues linked to cartography in regard to innovation 864.3.1. Outlining trends using cartography, getting inspired, finding meaning with mood boards 864.3.2. Outlining to represent user needs using cartography 884.3.3. Outlining the imaginary using cartography 894.4. Applications 924.4.1. Mapping the world of the object to get inspiration and thinking about the meaning of innovation 924.4.2. Mapping the imaginary to think about the political meaning of innovation 924.4.3. Mapping the imaginary to experiment with ethics 944.4.4. Comparing the designer’s signification of innovation with the user’s signification of innovation via the empathy map 964.5. Conclusion 964.6. References 96Chapter 5. Bringing Meanings to Life 99Joëlle FOREST5.1. Introduction 995.2. Creativity representations 1005.2.1. From the register of the inexplicable… 1015.2.2. … to creativity as a process 1035.2.3. Russian doll processes 1055.2.4. Updating creative rationality 1065.3. Creativity issues 1085.3.1. Creativity and business performance 1085.3.2. Incremental versus radical innovation 1105.4. Key ingredients for creativity 1125.4.1. Getting beyond the fixation effect 1135.4.2. Encouraging unexpected connections 1155.4.3. Suspending judgment and opening up the field of possibilities 1165.4.4. The art of selection 1165.5. Conclusion 1205.6. References 121Chapter 6. In Search of Hidden or Lost Meaning 125Céline NGUYEN6.1. Introduction 1256.2. Collecting data through interviews 1256.2.1. A method that dates back more than a century 1266.2.2. Innovation management 1276.3. Thoughts on the meaning of an innovation: some examples 1296.3.1. Validating the signification of need from an existing product 1306.3.2. Interpreting signification for society: back to the videophone 1306.4. Applications 1326.4.1. Encouraging the assignment of meaning 1326.4.2. Organizing and analyzing meaning 1346.4.3. Accessing meaning 1416.5. Conclusion 1446.6. References 144Chapter 7. Intermediary Representations as a Vector for Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 147Joëlle FOREST7.1. Introduction 1477.2. From the representation of the product to that of the meaning of innovation 1487.2.1. Multiple representation modes mobilized in design 1497.2.2. From the representation of functions to that of the meaning of the innovative concept 1527.3. Issues of intermediary representations in the innovation process 1547.3.1. Intermediary representations at the service of the designer 1547.3.2. Intermediary representations at the service of the actors involved in the design process 1567.3.3. Intermediary representations to test signification with users 1577.3.4. Economic and societal stakes of intermediary representations in design 1597.4. Implementations 1607.4.1. Acting to think 1617.4.2. Think to act 1637.4.3. Developing the test procedure 1657.5. Conclusion 1677.6. References 168Chapter 8. What if Innovation were Recounted to Me? 171Marianne CHOUTEAU and Céline NGUYEN8.1. Introduction 1718.2. Narrative functions 1728.2.1. Universality and functions of the narrative 1728.2.2. Strong links between innovation and stories 1738.2.3. What other approaches do with storytelling 1758.3. Issues and examples for thinking about meaning 1788.3.1. For the designer, inspiring stories 1798.3.2. Storytelling to understand the signification of a problem 1798.3.3. Stories to generate meaning for society 1808.4. Applications 1838.4.1. Choosing the direction of innovation with a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1838.4.2. Excluding directions from a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1848.4.3. Writing prospective narratives to think about the future of society (for the designer) 1858.4.4. Writing narratives to understand the user’s intended signification 1868.4.5. Enhancing an innovative concept using storytelling 1878.5. Conclusion 1888.6. References 188Conclusion 191Marianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENIndex 197

Marianne Chouteau is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, France, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Specializing in imagination and representations of technology, her research interests include innovation and ethics.Joëlle Forest is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is responsible for research conducted within the framework of the Chaire Saint-Gobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests focus on the mode of existence of innovations.Céline Nguyen is a lecturer at INSA Lyon, a member of the S2HEP laboratory at the University of Lyon, and is part of the Chaire SaintGobain – INSA Lyon Ingénieurs Ingénieux team. Her research interests include the analysis of narratives and representations surrounding technology and innovation.

• Introduction: The P.S.I. Approach to Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation xiMarianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENChapter 1. Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 1Joëlle FOREST1.1. Introduction 11.2. Why bring up the question of meaning? 21.2.1. The meaning of innovation: an old question 21.2.2. The illusion of meaning 51.3. The P.S.I. approach (Penser le Sens de l’Innovation) 141.3.1. The question of meaning considered from the point of view of direction and signification 141.3.2. The P.S.I. approach: a philosophy of and for action 201.4. References 25Chapter 2. Curiosity Killed the Cat 29Marianne CHOUTEAU2.1. Introduction 292.2. Origins, functions, definitions 292.2.1. The origins of observation: ethnology, anthropology and sociology 292.2.2. Did you say “observation”? 312.3. Observing in order to innovate 332.3.1. What existing approaches tell us 342.3.2. Observation and the P.S.I. approach 362.4. Applications 422.4.1. Proven know-how 432.4.2. Observing in order to find an idea: allowing yourself to be surprised 472.4.3. Observing in order to identify the problem 482.4.4. Checking your idea/concept 492.5. Conclusion 502.6. References 50Chapter 3. Identifying and Defining a Meaningful Problem 53Céline NGUYEN3.1. Introduction 533.2. The “problem” of the problem 543.2.1. The problem in design science 543.2.2. Design Thinking, or defining the problem from the user’s point of view 563.2.3. Sociological extensions around the user 583.3. What are the issues of meaning about the problem? 613.3.1. A central issue: avoiding failures 613.3.2. Textbook case studies 623.4. What should we do? 683.4.1. Informing the problem: monitoring tools 693.4.2. Defining the problem well 743.5. Conclusion 783.6. References 78Chapter 4. Outlining the Meaning of Innovation Using Cartography 81Marianne CHOUTEAU4.1. Introduction 814.2. History, definitions and concepts 814.2.1. Some historical elements 814.2.2. Definitions and concepts834.3. Issues linked to cartography in regard to innovation 864.3.1. Outlining trends using cartography, getting inspired, finding meaning with mood boards 864.3.2. Outlining to represent user needs using cartography 884.3.3. Outlining the imaginary using cartography 894.4. Applications 924.4.1. Mapping the world of the object to get inspiration and thinking about the meaning of innovation 924.4.2. Mapping the imaginary to think about the political meaning of innovation 924.4.3. Mapping the imaginary to experiment with ethics 944.4.4. Comparing the designer’s signification of innovation with the user’s signification of innovation via the empathy map 964.5. Conclusion 964.6. References 96Chapter 5. Bringing Meanings to Life 99Joëlle FOREST5.1. Introduction 995.2. Creativity representations 1005.2.1. From the register of the inexplicable… 1015.2.2. … to creativity as a process 1035.2.3. Russian doll processes 1055.2.4. Updating creative rationality 1065.3. Creativity issues 1085.3.1. Creativity and business performance 1085.3.2. Incremental versus radical innovation 1105.4. Key ingredients for creativity 1125.4.1. Getting beyond the fixation effect 1135.4.2. Encouraging unexpected connections 1155.4.3. Suspending judgment and opening up the field of possibilities 1165.4.4. The art of selection 1165.5. Conclusion 1205.6. References 121Chapter 6. In Search of Hidden or Lost Meaning 125Céline NGUYEN6.1. Introduction 1256.2. Collecting data through interviews 1256.2.1. A method that dates back more than a century 1266.2.2. Innovation management 1276.3. Thoughts on the meaning of an innovation: some examples 1296.3.1. Validating the signification of need from an existing product 1306.3.2. Interpreting signification for society: back to the videophone 1306.4. Applications 1326.4.1. Encouraging the assignment of meaning 1326.4.2. Organizing and analyzing meaning 1346.4.3. Accessing meaning 1416.5. Conclusion 1446.6. References 144Chapter 7. Intermediary Representations as a Vector for Thinking About the Meaning of Innovation 147Joëlle FOREST7.1. Introduction 1477.2. From the representation of the product to that of the meaning of innovation 1487.2.1. Multiple representation modes mobilized in design 1497.2.2. From the representation of functions to that of the meaning of the innovative concept 1527.3. Issues of intermediary representations in the innovation process 1547.3.1. Intermediary representations at the service of the designer 1547.3.2. Intermediary representations at the service of the actors involved in the design process 1567.3.3. Intermediary representations to test signification with users 1577.3.4. Economic and societal stakes of intermediary representations in design 1597.4. Implementations 1607.4.1. Acting to think 1617.4.2. Think to act 1637.4.3. Developing the test procedure 1657.5. Conclusion 1677.6. References 168Chapter 8. What if Innovation were Recounted to Me? 171Marianne CHOUTEAU and Céline NGUYEN8.1. Introduction 1718.2. Narrative functions 1728.2.1. Universality and functions of the narrative 1728.2.2. Strong links between innovation and stories 1738.2.3. What other approaches do with storytelling 1758.3. Issues and examples for thinking about meaning 1788.3.1. For the designer, inspiring stories 1798.3.2. Storytelling to understand the signification of a problem 1798.3.3. Stories to generate meaning for society 1808.4. Applications 1838.4.1. Choosing the direction of innovation with a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1838.4.2. Excluding directions from a fictional corpus (for the designer) 1848.4.3. Writing prospective narratives to think about the future of society (for the designer) 1858.4.4. Writing narratives to understand the user’s intended signification 1868.4.5. Enhancing an innovative concept using storytelling 1878.5. Conclusion 1888.6. References 188Conclusion 191Marianne CHOUTEAU, Joëlle FOREST and Céline NGUYENIndex 197