Impacts of the Covid-19 Pandemic

Nadav Morag is Professor of Security Studies and Chair of the Department of Security Studies at Sam Houston State University. He also serves on the faculty of the Center for Homeland Defense and Security (CHDS), Naval Postgraduate School. He is the author of Comparative Homeland Security: Global Lessons, 2nd Edition (Wiley and Sons, 2018) and has authored numerous articles and book chapters on terrorism, strategy and the Middle East.

• Notes on Contributors xiiiForeword xvPreface xixSection 1 Countries with a Focus on the Rule of Law and Legal Protections of Civil Liberties 11 The Netherlands: Dutch COVID-19 Policy Viewed from a Fundamental Rights Perspective 3Adriaan J. Wierenga and Jorrit Westerhof1.1 Introduction 31.2 Disaster Management in the Netherlands 41.2.1 Functional and General Chain of Command 41.2.2 The COVID-19 Crisis 51.3 The Public Health Act 2008 (Functional Chain of Command) 51.3.1 National Crisis Structure 61.3.2 Measures 71.4 Municipal Emergency Powers (General Chain of Command) 81.4.1 Areas of Tension 81.4.2 Debatable Limitations of Fundamental Rights 91.4.3 Democratic Control and Administrative Supervision 101.5 Interim COVID-19 Measures Act (Addition to the Functional Chain of Command) 111.5.1 Improvements and Shortcomings 121.5.2 Legitimate Limitation of Fundamental Rights 121.5.3 Stricter Democratic Control 131.6 National Emergency Law 141.6.1 Separate Implementation 151.6.2 Criticism 161.6.3 The Curfew Case 171.7 Conclusion 18References 192 Emergencies, Executive Power, and Ireland’s Response to the Covid-19 Pandemic 23Alan Greene2.1 Introduction 232.2 Ireland’s Constitutional Emergency Framework 242.2.1 International Human Rights Law 262.3 Ireland’s Pandemic Response and Constitutional Constraints 272.3.1 Pandemic Rent Controls and Constitutional Constraints 282.3.2 Executive Supremacy and the COVID-19 Pandemic 292.4 Ireland’s Pandemic Response and Human Rights 312.4.1 The Pandemic and the Right to Liberty 312.4.1.1 Mandatory Hotel Quarantine 322.4.2 Quarantine and Detention at Home 342.5 Data Protection, Surveillance, and Discrimination Issues 362.5.1 Vaccination and Vaccine Passports 372.6 COVID-19 and the Rule of Law in Ireland 382.7 Conclusions 393 COVID-19: Legal Lessons Learned in Switzerland 41Felix Uhlmann3.1 Introduction 413.2 Legal Framework 413.2.1 Legal Framework before COVID-19 (Swiss Epidemics Act) 413.2.1.1 Scope and Goals 413.2.1.2 Normal, Particular, and Extraordinary Situations 423.2.1.3 Measures 443.2.2 Legal Framework Under COVID-19 453.2.2.1 First and SecondWave 453.2.2.2 Financial Aid 473.2.2.3 The Federal Council and Other Actors 483.3 Contact Tracing App 483.4 Fundamental Rights (Civil Liberties) 503.4.1 Restrictions on Daily Life 503.4.2 Vaccinations 523.5 Assessment 53References 544 Not Dead Yet: Protest, Process, and Germany’s Constitutional Democracy Amid the Coronavirus Response 59Carolyn Halladay4.1 The FirstWave: So Far, So Good 604.2 Proportionality and its Discontents 654.3 Summer in the City 674.4 Is it an Emergency Yet? 714.5 Second Guessing the SecondWave 754.6 Happily Ever After? 775 The United Kingdom Legislative Response to Coronavirus: Shotgun or Machine Gun 79Ronan Cormacain and Duncan Fairgrieve5.1 Introduction 795.2 Reliance Upon Law 795.3 Nature of the Legal Framework 805.3.1 Machine Gun Legislative Response 805.3.2 Devolution and the Legislative Response 805.3.3 Overview of the Legislative Framework 815.3.4 Pre-existing Laws or New Laws 845.3.5 Use of Emergency/Urgency Powers and Procedures or Use of Regular Powers and Procedures 845.3.6 Sunset Clauses/Expiry Dates 865.4 Substance of the Legal Response 865.4.1 Restrictions on Individual Liberties 865.4.2 Travel Restrictions 875.4.3 Vaccination Policy 875.4.4 Track and Trace 905.4.5 Support Measures – Furlough Payments, no Evictions 905.5 Problems/Analysis of the Legal Response 915.5.1 Reliance upon Emergency Procedures and Processes to Make Law in a Rush 915.5.2 Lack of Effective Parliamentary Scrutiny 925.5.3 Conflation of Law with Guidance 935.5.4 Inaccessible and Unintelligible Legislation 945.5.5 Risk of Creep of Emergency Practices into Normal Lawmaking 955.5.6 Compliance with the Rules by Those in Power 965.6 Conclusion 96Section 2 Countries making Extensive use of Emergency Laws and Securitization 996 The State of Exception and its Effects on Civil Liberties in Italy During the COVID-19 Crisis 101Anna Malandrino, Margherita Paola Poto, and Elena Demichelis6.1 Introduction 1016.2 Defining the Elements of States of Exception (SoE) 1036.2.1 States of Exception in the General Context 1036.2.2 Italy 1036.3 States of Exception During the Pandemic: Declaration, Implementation, and Effects 1086.3.1 Establishing and Implementing the States of Exception 1086.3.2 The Potential Effects of States of Exception on Civil Liberties 1096.4 States of Exception and Containment Measures during the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy: Regulatory Aspects 1106.5 States of Exception and Containment Measures During the COVID-19 Pandemic in Italy: Implementation 1126.6 The Effects of States of Exception Measures on Civil Liberties 1136.7 Conclusions 116References 1167 Praise the Alarm: Spain’s Coronavirus Approach 121Carolyn Halladay, Florina C. Matei, and Andres de Castro7.1 Quien aprisa juzgó, despacio se arrepintió: The Early Days of COVID and the Spanish Response 1237.2 Culpa no tiene, quien hace lo que debe: The FirstWave and the First Lockdown 1257.3 Cada uno quiere justiciar, mas no por su casa: The SecondWave and the Second Lockdown 1307.4 Con necesidad, no hay ley? States of Emergency in Spain and Beyond 1337.5 Hasta que pruebes, no absuelvas ni condenes: COVID and the Law Amid Spanish Tensions 1377.6 El fin veremos; hasta entonces no hablemos: Conclusion 1398 Pandemic Pangs and Fangs: Romania’s Public Safety and Civil Liberties in the COVID-19 Era 141Florina C. Matei8.1 Legal Framework and Policy Approaches Vis-À-Vis Quarantine, Isolation, and Other Social Distancing Measures 1418.2 Quarantine, Isolation, and Other Social Distancing Measures During the Covid-19 Pandemic 1448.2.1 From a State of Emergency amidst a Political Crisis… 1448.2.2 …To a State of Alert: Anachronistic Legislation Meets Ebbing and Flowing Restrictions 1508.2.2.1 Vaccination Campaign: Needles for Fangs 1538.2.3 Transparency During the Pandemic: Between Thought Police, Strategic “Mis” Communications, and Conspiracy Theories 1548.2.3.1 Civil Society: A Tamed yet Clamorous Cerberus? 1578.2.4 A “Plagued” Executive–Legislative–Judiciary Trifecta 1598.3 Conclusion: Civil Liberties and Freedoms 1619 Policymaking and Liberty Restrictions in the Covid-19 Crisis, the Case of France 165Angelique Palle, Lisa Carayon, François Delerue, Florian Opillard, and Christelle Chidiac Disclaimer 1659.1 Introduction 1659.2 Policymaking and Liberty Restrictions in France During Covid-19 Crisis, Research Questions and Methodology 1669.3 Regulation and Policymaking in France During Covid-19, Context and Background 1679.4 “State of Emergency Related to the Sanitary Situation/Etat d’Urgence Sanitaire”: The Recourse to an Exceptional Legal Framework 1699.5 The Involvement of the Armed Forces in France in the Covid-19 Crisis Management, Between Political Display and Response to the Crisis 1709.6 Perception by the French Population of the Missions Performed by the Armed Forces and of the Nature of the Covid-19 Crisis 1729.7 Analyzing Local and Regional Measures of Civil Liberties’s Restrictions in the Context of the “State of Emergency Related to the Sanitary Situation” (état d’urgence sanitaire), the Case of the Freedom of Movement throughout the First to the Second Confinement 1739.8 Legitimizing Civil Liberties Restrictions and Shaping the Governance of Policymaking, Comparison of the Two Cities of Rennes and Nice 1759.9 Conclusion 179References 179Section 3 Countries Focused on Population Monitoring and Restrictions 18110 Policy Measures, Information Technology, and People’s Collective Behavior in Taiwan’s COVID-19 Response 183Cheryl Lin, Pikuei Tu, Wendy E. Braund, Jewel Mullen, and Georges C. Benjamin10.1 Introduction 18310.2 A Snapshot of Taiwan 18410.2.1 The Legal Framework Pertaining to Pandemic Response 18410.2.1.1 Epidemic Control and Public Health Emergency 18410.2.1.2 Personal Information 18610.3 The Ominous Beginning of the Pandemic 18610.3.1 Swift Responses Early On 18710.4 Blocking Infection Importation and Local Transmission 18810.4.1 Tightened Border Control 18810.4.2 Rigorous Contact Tracing 18910.4.2.1 Augmentation with Information Technology (IT) 18910.4.3 Enforcing Quarantine – Operations and Mechanism 19010.4.3.1 Provisions, Compensation, and Penalties During Quarantine 19010.5 Active Participatory Role of the Public – Awareness and Preventive Behavior 19210.5.1 Common Use of Masks and Response to Shortage 19210.5.2 Promoting and Self-Adhering to Social Distancing 19210.6 Healthcare System and Capacity 19310.6.1 National Health Insurance (NHI) and Data Integration 19310.6.2 Infectious Disease Control Medical Network 19410.6.3 Assuring Care and Support for the Providers 19510.7 The Heights of Cases, Anxiety, and Dilemmas 19510.7.1 The Surge of Spring/Summer 2021 19610.7.2 Amended Policies and Reflections of the Surge 19710.8 Vaccine Supply, Hesitancy, and Distribution 19810.8.1 Slow Delivery and Shortage of Supply 19810.8.2 Vaccine Hesitancy and Demand 19910.8.3 Vaccine Prioritization and Administration 20010.9 Reflections and Conclusions 200References 20111 The Legislative and Political Responses of Viet Nam to the Covid-19 Pandemic: The Balancing of Public Health and Collective Civil Liberties 209Nguyen T. Trung and Nguyen Q. DuongDisclaimer 20911.1 Introduction 20911.2 Background: The FourWaves of Covid-19 in Viet Nam 21111.2.1 The FirstWave (23 January–19 April 2020) 21111.2.2 The SecondWave (25 July–2 September 2020) 21211.2.3 The ThirdWave (28 January–13 March 2021) 21311.2.4 The FourthWave (27 April–15 July 2021) 21411.3 The Legislative Framework in Combating Infectious Disease 21511.3.1 Legislative and Administrative Documents in Vietnam 21511.3.2 The Constitution 21511.3.3 The 2007 Law on Prevention and Control of Infectious Diseases 21611.3.3.1 Prevention Measures 21711.3.3.2 Combating Measures 21711.3.3.3 Prohibited Activities and Fines for Failures to Implement Prevention and Combating Measures 21811.3.4 The Criminal Code 21911.3.5 Three Directives of the Prime Minister 22011.4 The Policy Responses of the Vietnamese Government During the Pandemic 22111.4.1 The Contact Tracing System 22211.4.2 Quarantine Regulation 22311.4.3 Social Distancing Measures 22411.5 The Paradigm Shift in the Legal and Political Responses and the Balancing of Public Health and Civil Liberties 22411.5.1 The Paradigm Shift in the Legal and Political Responses 22511.5.2 The Balancing of Public Health and Civil Liberties 22611.6 Conclusion 228References 23012 Singapore United 235Jacinta I-Pei Chen, Sharon H.X. Tan, Peak Sen Chua, Jeremy Lim, and Jason Chin-Huat Yap12.1 Governing Philosophy and Laws 23512.2 Early Response to Circuit Breaker (February–May 2020) 23712.2.1 Enforcement Approach 24212.2.2 Financial and Other Supportive Resources 24312.2.3 Religion, Marriage, and Family Life 24412.2.4 Communications 24512.3 Relaxation of Measures (June 2020–April 2021) 24612.3.1 Prioritizing Sectors 25112.3.2 Strengthening Outbreak Control Capabilities 25112.3.3 General Elections 2020 25312.4 Heightened Alert (May 2021–June 2021) 25412.5 Leveraging Technology 26112.5.1 Data Privacy, Security, and Governance 26312.5.2 What Next? 26412.6 MigrantWorker Dormitories 26412.6.1 The Regulatory Regime 26512.6.2 The Dormitory Outbreaks 26512.6.3 Reflections 26612.7 Discussion 27112.8 Conclusion 272Acknowledgements 273References 273Section 4 Countries Focused on Fostering Popular Trust in Government, Emphasizing Social Welfare, and Limiting Sanctions and Restrictions 30113 Sweden and Covid-19: A (Mainly) Recommendary Approach 303Iain Cameron and Anna Jonsson Cornell13.1 Introduction 30313.2 Setting the Stage – The Initial Swedish Response to the Pandemic 30313.3 The Constitutional Context 30513.4 The Legislative Procedure, Delegation of Powers, and Rights Protection 30813.5 The Public Health Agency and the Act on Protection Against Contagious Diseases 30913.6 Legal Measures Taken to Counter the Spread of Covid-19 31113.7 Vaccination and Exit Strategies 31213.8 Putting the Swedish Soft Power Strategy in Context 31313.9 Evaluating the Swedish Measures from a Rule of Law Perspective 31513.10 Concluding Remarks 31914 Administrative Guidance in Coronavirus Special Measures Act in 2021 in Japan 323Yuichiro Tsuji14.1 The 2020 CSMA 32314.1.1 2021 CSMA and Administrative Guidance 32314.1.2 How CSMA was Amended 32514.1.3 How CSMA was Amended, and Why 32614.1.4 Legalization of the Self-restraint Order 32614.1.5 Sanctions, not Penal but Administrative 32714.1.6 Revision of the Infectious Diseases Act 32814.2 Administrative Guidance and COVID-19 in 2021 32914.2.1 Traditional Theory in Japanese Administrative Law 33014.2.2 Legal Control of Administrative Guidance 33014.2.3 Art. 33 of APA When a Citizen does not Follow Administrative Guidance 33114.2.4 Public Announcement 33214.2.5 Public Announcement in TMG 33214.2.6 Merits and Demerits of Administrative Guidance 33314.2.7 How to Impose Administrative Fine Procedural Requirement 33414.2.8 APA Ordinance and TMG 33414.3 Conclusion 335References 33615 Canada’s Fight Against COVID-19: Constitutionalism, Laws, and the Global Pandemic 339Iffath U. Syed15.1 Non-Pharmaceutical Intervention (NPI) Measures 34015.2 COVID-19 Special Acts for Relief and Compensatory Measures 34115.3 Long-Term Care Crisis 34615.4 Research and Vaccine Development Initiatives 34715.5 Other Policies and Governmental Actions to Dampen the Pandemic 34715.6 New Year, But Pandemic Looms 35015.7 Summary, Limitations, and Concluding Remarks 351References 35116 Coronavirus and the Social State: Austria in the Pandemic 359Donald Abenheim and Carolyn Halladay16.1 The Impfpflicht 36116.2 The Freedom Party’s Liberties 36316.3 A Bundle of Measures 36416.4 A Decade or More of Crises 36716.5 The Sozialstaat Strikes Back 37116.6 Protest, Rhetoric, and the Law 37316.7 Conclusion: Community, Communicability, and the Constitution 376Afterword 379Index 381