Ephraim S. Ayil (1998) holds a B.A. in Political Science from Touro University, and will be pursuing a J.D. at SMU Dedman School of Law in autumn of 2024. Most recently, he worked at Hillsdale College's Washington, D.C. campus. His research interests span multiple disciplines, reflecting a broad academic interest.

• Acknowledgements1 Introduction1 Methodology2 Terminology/Scope3 Limitations/Preface2 The Ḥōšen—Priestly Breastplate3 אֹדֶם ʾōḏem—Carnelian1 Defining Carnelian4 פִּטְדָה Piṭḏā—Peridot1 False Etymologies2 Reexamining an Old Connection3 Identity5 בָּרֶקֶת Bāreḳeṯ—Green Jasper1 Medieval Identifications2 Previous Etymologies3 Cognates4 A Semitic Etymology5 Possible Identities6 Putting the Data Together6 נֹפֶךְ Nōp̄eḵ—Turquoise1 Derivation from Egyptian mfkꜢt2 Semantics3 פּוּךְ Pūḵ7 סַפִּיר Sappīr—Lapis Lazuli1 The Biblical Sources2 Greco-Roman Sources for Σάπφειρος Sappheiros3 The Supposed Indian Origin4 Marginal Cognates5 Akkadian Analogue and a Revised Etymology8 יָהֲלֹם Yāhălōm9 לֶשֶׁם Lešem—Amazonite10 שְׁבוֹ Šəḇō—Agate11 אַחְלָמָה ʾaḥlāmā—Red Jasper1 Phonology2 Ancient Translations12 תַּרְשִׁישׁ Taršīš—Amber1 Internal Evidence for the Color of Taršīš-Stone2 Tars̆īs̆ = Tartessos = A Stone from Tartessos3 Applying the Philological Method4 Other Previous Views5 Conclusion13 שֹׁהַם Šōham—Onyx1 The Location of חֲוִילָה Ḥăwīlā2 Terminological Issues concerning Onyx3 Chalcedony Onyx in Arabia4 The Egyptian Word for Onyx5 Towards an Etymology6 New Biblical Interpretations14 יַשְׁפֶה Yašp̄e—Blue Chalcedony1 Cognates2 Yaspids in Greek and Mesopotamian Sources3 The Elamite Yašpu4 Breaking My Own Rules5 Cultural Realia, Geography, Mythology: Towards an Etymology6 Conclusion15 שָׁמִיר Šāmīr—Emery1 Cognates2 The Etymology of שָׁמִיר Šāmīr3 The Shamir Worm16 גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš & אֶלְגָּבִישׁ ʾelgāḇīš—Crystal Quartz, Gypsum & Hail1 Previous Hypotheses2 Phonological Analysis3 Hebrew Sources for Elgavish4 On גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš5 Etymological History in Other Languages6 Semantics17 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ & אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ—Garnet1 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ2 אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ3 Greek Ἄνθραξ Anthrax and Latin Carbunculus4 Ugaritic Pḥm and Akkadian Pēndȗ5 Historiography18 צוֹר C̣ōr & חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš—Flint/Obsidian1 צֹר C̣ōr2 חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš3 Afterword: Implications for the Reconstruction of Ancient Egyptian Phonology4 Harmonizing the Data19 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš & גִּר Gir—Limestone1 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš2 גִּר Gir3 Afterword20 Other Classical Hebrew Lithonyms1 בַּהַט Bahaṭ2 בֹּחַן Bōḥan3 גָּפְרִית Gop̄rīt̠4 דַּר Dar5 מֶלַח Melaḥ6 נֶתֶר Neṯer7 שָׁשַׁר Shāshar21 Final Analysis1 Patterns in Borrowing2 Reconsidering the Septuagint and a Potential Pattern3 A Theory of the Septuagint4 Frontiers for Future ResearchAppendix: Index of Publications concerning Stones in the BibleBibliographyIndex of Foreign WordsIndex of Gemstones & Minerals

Ephraim S. Ayil (1998) holds a B.A. in Political Science from Touro University, and will be pursuing a J.D. at SMU Dedman School of Law in autumn of 2024. Most recently, he worked at Hillsdale College's Washington, D.C. campus. His research interests span multiple disciplines, reflecting a broad academic interest.

• Acknowledgements1 Introduction1 Methodology2 Terminology/Scope3 Limitations/Preface2 The Ḥōšen—Priestly Breastplate3 אֹדֶם ʾōḏem—Carnelian1 Defining Carnelian4 פִּטְדָה Piṭḏā—Peridot1 False Etymologies2 Reexamining an Old Connection3 Identity5 בָּרֶקֶת Bāreḳeṯ—Green Jasper1 Medieval Identifications2 Previous Etymologies3 Cognates4 A Semitic Etymology5 Possible Identities6 Putting the Data Together6 נֹפֶךְ Nōp̄eḵ—Turquoise1 Derivation from Egyptian mfkꜢt2 Semantics3 פּוּךְ Pūḵ7 סַפִּיר Sappīr—Lapis Lazuli1 The Biblical Sources2 Greco-Roman Sources for Σάπφειρος Sappheiros3 The Supposed Indian Origin4 Marginal Cognates5 Akkadian Analogue and a Revised Etymology8 יָהֲלֹם Yāhălōm9 לֶשֶׁם Lešem—Amazonite10 שְׁבוֹ Šəḇō—Agate11 אַחְלָמָה ʾaḥlāmā—Red Jasper1 Phonology2 Ancient Translations12 תַּרְשִׁישׁ Taršīš—Amber1 Internal Evidence for the Color of Taršīš-Stone2 Tars̆īs̆ = Tartessos = A Stone from Tartessos3 Applying the Philological Method4 Other Previous Views5 Conclusion13 שֹׁהַם Šōham—Onyx1 The Location of חֲוִילָה Ḥăwīlā2 Terminological Issues concerning Onyx3 Chalcedony Onyx in Arabia4 The Egyptian Word for Onyx5 Towards an Etymology6 New Biblical Interpretations14 יַשְׁפֶה Yašp̄e—Blue Chalcedony1 Cognates2 Yaspids in Greek and Mesopotamian Sources3 The Elamite Yašpu4 Breaking My Own Rules5 Cultural Realia, Geography, Mythology: Towards an Etymology6 Conclusion15 שָׁמִיר Šāmīr—Emery1 Cognates2 The Etymology of שָׁמִיר Šāmīr3 The Shamir Worm16 גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš & אֶלְגָּבִישׁ ʾelgāḇīš—Crystal Quartz, Gypsum & Hail1 Previous Hypotheses2 Phonological Analysis3 Hebrew Sources for Elgavish4 On גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš5 Etymological History in Other Languages6 Semantics17 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ & אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ—Garnet1 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ2 אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ3 Greek Ἄνθραξ Anthrax and Latin Carbunculus4 Ugaritic Pḥm and Akkadian Pēndȗ5 Historiography18 צוֹר C̣ōr & חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš—Flint/Obsidian1 צֹר C̣ōr2 חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš3 Afterword: Implications for the Reconstruction of Ancient Egyptian Phonology4 Harmonizing the Data19 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš & גִּר Gir—Limestone1 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš2 גִּר Gir3 Afterword20 Other Classical Hebrew Lithonyms1 בַּהַט Bahaṭ2 בֹּחַן Bōḥan3 גָּפְרִית Gop̄rīt̠4 דַּר Dar5 מֶלַח Melaḥ6 נֶתֶר Neṯer7 שָׁשַׁר Shāshar21 Final Analysis1 Patterns in Borrowing2 Reconsidering the Septuagint and a Potential Pattern3 A Theory of the Septuagint4 Frontiers for Future ResearchAppendix: Index of Publications concerning Stones in the BibleBibliographyIndex of Foreign WordsIndex of Gemstones & Minerals

Ephraim S. Ayil (1998) holds a B.A. in Political Science from Touro University, and will be pursuing a J.D. at SMU Dedman School of Law in autumn of 2024. Most recently, he worked at Hillsdale College's Washington, D.C. campus. His research interests span multiple disciplines, reflecting a broad academic interest.

• Acknowledgements1 Introduction1 Methodology2 Terminology/Scope3 Limitations/Preface2 The Ḥōšen—Priestly Breastplate3 אֹדֶם ʾōḏem—Carnelian1 Defining Carnelian4 פִּטְדָה Piṭḏā—Peridot1 False Etymologies2 Reexamining an Old Connection3 Identity5 בָּרֶקֶת Bāreḳeṯ—Green Jasper1 Medieval Identifications2 Previous Etymologies3 Cognates4 A Semitic Etymology5 Possible Identities6 Putting the Data Together6 נֹפֶךְ Nōp̄eḵ—Turquoise1 Derivation from Egyptian mfkꜢt2 Semantics3 פּוּךְ Pūḵ7 סַפִּיר Sappīr—Lapis Lazuli1 The Biblical Sources2 Greco-Roman Sources for Σάπφειρος Sappheiros3 The Supposed Indian Origin4 Marginal Cognates5 Akkadian Analogue and a Revised Etymology8 יָהֲלֹם Yāhălōm9 לֶשֶׁם Lešem—Amazonite10 שְׁבוֹ Šəḇō—Agate11 אַחְלָמָה ʾaḥlāmā—Red Jasper1 Phonology2 Ancient Translations12 תַּרְשִׁישׁ Taršīš—Amber1 Internal Evidence for the Color of Taršīš-Stone2 Tars̆īs̆ = Tartessos = A Stone from Tartessos3 Applying the Philological Method4 Other Previous Views5 Conclusion13 שֹׁהַם Šōham—Onyx1 The Location of חֲוִילָה Ḥăwīlā2 Terminological Issues concerning Onyx3 Chalcedony Onyx in Arabia4 The Egyptian Word for Onyx5 Towards an Etymology6 New Biblical Interpretations14 יַשְׁפֶה Yašp̄e—Blue Chalcedony1 Cognates2 Yaspids in Greek and Mesopotamian Sources3 The Elamite Yašpu4 Breaking My Own Rules5 Cultural Realia, Geography, Mythology: Towards an Etymology6 Conclusion15 שָׁמִיר Šāmīr—Emery1 Cognates2 The Etymology of שָׁמִיר Šāmīr3 The Shamir Worm16 גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš & אֶלְגָּבִישׁ ʾelgāḇīš—Crystal Quartz, Gypsum & Hail1 Previous Hypotheses2 Phonological Analysis3 Hebrew Sources for Elgavish4 On גָּבִישׁ Gāḇīš5 Etymological History in Other Languages6 Semantics17 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ & אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ—Garnet1 כַּדְכֹּד Kadkōḏ2 אֶקְדָּח ʾeḳdāḥ3 Greek Ἄνθραξ Anthrax and Latin Carbunculus4 Ugaritic Pḥm and Akkadian Pēndȗ5 Historiography18 צוֹר C̣ōr & חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš—Flint/Obsidian1 צֹר C̣ōr2 חַלָּמִישׁ Ḥallāmīš3 Afterword: Implications for the Reconstruction of Ancient Egyptian Phonology4 Harmonizing the Data19 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš & גִּר Gir—Limestone1 שַׁיִשׁ/שֵׁשׁ Šayiš/Šēš2 גִּר Gir3 Afterword20 Other Classical Hebrew Lithonyms1 בַּהַט Bahaṭ2 בֹּחַן Bōḥan3 גָּפְרִית Gop̄rīt̠4 דַּר Dar5 מֶלַח Melaḥ6 נֶתֶר Neṯer7 שָׁשַׁר Shāshar21 Final Analysis1 Patterns in Borrowing2 Reconsidering the Septuagint and a Potential Pattern3 A Theory of the Septuagint4 Frontiers for Future ResearchAppendix: Index of Publications concerning Stones in the BibleBibliographyIndex of Foreign WordsIndex of Gemstones & Minerals