Ice Adhesion

Kashmiri Lal Mittal was employed by the IBM Corporation from 1972 through 1993. Currently, he is teaching and consulting worldwide in the broad areas of adhesion as well as surface cleaning. He has received numerous awards and honors including the title of doctor honoris causa from Maria Curie- Skłodowska University, Lublin, Poland. He is the editor of more than 135 books dealing with adhesion measurement, adhesion of polymeric coatings, polymer surfaces, adhesive joints, adhesion promoters, thin films, polyimides, surface modification surface cleaning, and surfactants. Dr. Mittal is also the Founding Editor of the journal Reviews of Adhesion and Adhesives. Chang-Hwan Choi is a professor in the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the Stevens Institute of Technology. He acquired his BS (1995) and MS (1997) in Mechanical & Aerospace Engineering from Seoul National University in Korea. He worked as a researcher at Korea Aerospace Research Institute before he received his PhD (2006) in Mechanical Engineering from the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA), specializing in MEMS/Nanotechnology and minoring in Fluid Mechanics and Biomedical Engineering. Areas of his research interest include surface engineering and interfacial phenomena. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed journal articles and been awarded one patent.

• Preface xvPart 1: Fundamentals of Ice Formation and Characterization 11 Factors Influencing the Formation, Adhesion, and Friction of Ice 3Michael J. Wood and Anne-Marie Kietzig1.1 A Brief History of Man and Ice 41.1.1 Ice on Earth 41.1.2 Man is Carved of Ice 51.1.3 Modern Man Carves Ice 81.2 A Thermodynamically Designed Anti-Icing Surface 131.2.1 Homogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 141.2.2 Heterogeneous Classical Nucleation Theory 161.2.3 Predicting Delays in Ice Nucleation 201.2.4 Predicting Ice Nucleation Temperatures 221.3 The Adhesion of Ice to Surfaces 251.3.1 Wetting and Icing of Ideal Surfaces 261.3.2 Wetting of Real Surfaces 301.3.3 Ice Adhesion to Real Surfaces 321.4 The Sliding Friction of Ice 381.4.1 Ice Friction Regimes 391.4.2 The Origin of Ice’s Liquid-Like Layer 421.4.3 Parameters Affecting The Friction Coefficient of Ice 431. 5 Summary 45References 462 Water and Ice Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 55Youmin Hou, Hans-Jürgen Butt and Michael Kappl2.1 Introduction 552.2 Classical Nucleation Theory 572.2.1 Homogeneous Nucleation Rate 592.2.1.1 Homogeneous Nucleation of Water Droplets and Ice from Vapor 602.2.1.2 Homogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 612.2.2 Heterogeneous Nucleation Rate 632.2.2.1 Heterogeneous Water Nucleation on Solid Surfaces 632.2.3 Spatial Control of Water Nucleation on Nanoengineered Surfaces 682.2.4 Heterogeneous Ice Nucleation in Supercooled Water 712.3 Prospects 762.4 Summary 78Acknowledgement 79References 793 Physics of Ice Nucleation and Growth on a Surface 87Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi3.1 Ice Nucleation 883.2 Ice Growth 943.2.1 Scenario I: Droplet in an Environment without Airflow 953.2.2 Scenario II: Droplet in an Environment with External Airflow 993.3 Ice Bridging Phenomenon 1053.4 Summary 108References 1094 Condensation Frosting 111S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko4.1 Introduction 1114.2 Why Supercooled Condensation? 1144.3 Inter-Droplet Freeze Fronts 1174.4 Dry Zones and Anti-Frosting Surfaces 1244.5 Summary and Future Directions 129References 1315 The Role of Droplet Dynamics in Condensation Frosting 135Amy Rachel Betz5.1 Introduction 1355.2 Nucleation 1375.3 Growth 1385.4 Coalescence and Sweeping 1395.5 Regeneration or Re-Nucleation 1465.6 Inception of Freezing 1475.7 Freezing Front Propagation 1495.8 Ice Bridging 1505.9 Frost Growth and Densification 1535.10 Concluding Discussion 155Acknowledgments 156References 1566 Defrosting Properties of Structured Surfaces 161S. Farzad Ahmadi and Jonathan B. Boreyko6.1 Introduction: Defrosting on Smooth Surfaces 1626.2 Defrosting Heat Exchangers 1676.3 Dynamic Defrosting on Micro-Grooved Surfaces 1706.4 Dynamic Defrosting on Liquid-Impregnated Surfaces 1726.5 Dynamic Defrosting on Nanostructured Superhydrophobic Surfaces 1766.6 Summary and Future Directions 179References 181Part 2: Ice Adhesion and Its Measurement 1877 On the Relationship between Surface Free Energy and Ice Adhesion of Flat Anti-Icing Surfaces 189Salih Ozbay and H. Yildirim Erbil7.1 Introduction 1907.2 Types of Ice Formation 1937.2.1 Ice Formation from Supercooled Drops on a Surface 1937.2.2 Frost Formation from the Existing Humidity in the Medium 1947.3 Work of Adhesion, Wettability and Surface Free Energy 1957.4 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength and Its Standardization 1977.5 Effect of Water Contact Angle and Surface Free Energy Parameters on Ice Adhesion Strength 1997.6 Summary 205References 2068 Metrology of Ice Adhesion 217Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi8.1 Theory of Ice Adhesion to a Surface 2188.2 Centrifugal Force Method 2218.3 Peak Force Method 2248.4 Tensile Force Method 2308.5 Standard Procedure for Ice Adhesion Measurement 2318.6 Summary 233References 2339 Tensile and Shear Test Methods for Quantifying the Ice Adhesion Strength to a Surface 237Alexandre Laroche, Maria Jose Grasso, Ali Dolatabadi and Elmar BonaccursoGlossary 2379.1 Introduction 2399.2 About Ice, Impact Ice, and Ice Adhesion Tests 2419.2.1 Relationship between Wettability and Ice Adhesion 2419.2.2 A Simple Picture of Condition-Dependent Ice Growth 2469.2.3 Factors Affecting Ice Adhesion Strength 2489.3 Review of Ice Adhesion Test Methods 2539.3.1 Shear Tests 2579.3.1.1 Pusher and Lap Shear Tests 2579.3.1.2 Spinning Test Rigs 2639.3.1.3 Vibrating Cantilever Tests 2699.3.2 Tensile Tests 2749.4 Prospects 2799.5 Summary 279Acknowledgements 280References 28010 Comparison of Icephobic Materials through Interlaboratory Studies 285Sigrid Rønneberg, Caroline Laforte, Jianying He and Zhiliang Zhang10.1 Introduction 28610.2 Icephobicity and Anti-Icing Surfaces 28810.3 Ice Formation and Properties 28910.3.1 Definitions of Ice 29010.3.2 The Effect of Ice Type on Ice Adhesion Strength 29410.4 Testing Ice Adhesion 29910.4.1 Description of Selected Common Ice Adhesion Tests 29910.4.2 Adhesion Reduction Factor 30310.4.3 Effect of Experimental Parameters 30510.4.3.1 Temperature 30510.4.3.2 Ice Sample Size 30710.4.3.3 Force Probe Placement and Loading Rate 30810.5 Comparing Low Ice Adhesion Surfaces with Interlaboratory Tests 31010.5.1 The Need for Comparability 31010.5.2 Interlaboratory Test Procedure 31110.5.3 Interlaboratory Test Results 31410.5.4 Properties of a Future Standard and Reference 31710.6 Concluding Remarks 319References 320Part 3: Methods to Mitigate Ice Adhesion 32511 Mechanisms of Surface Icing and Deicing Technologies 327Ilker S. Bayer11.1 A Brief Description of Icing and Ice Adhesion 32811.2 Examples of Mathematical Modeling of Icing on Various Static or Moving Surfaces 33111.3 New Applications of Common Deicing Compounds 33411.4 Plasma-Based Deicing Systems 33611.5 Functional Super (Hydrophilic) or Wettable Polymeric Coatings to Resist Icing 34011.6 Nanoscale Carbon Coatings with/without Resistive Heating 34511.7 Antifreeze Proteins 34911.8 Summary and Perspectives 354References 35512 Icephobicities of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 361Dong Song, Youhua Jiang, Mohammad Amin Sarshar and Chang-Hwan Choi12.1 Introduction 36212.2 Anti-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Dynamic Flow Conditions 36912.2.1 Preparation of Superhydrophobic Surfaces 36912.2.2 Anti-Icing Test under Dynamic Flow Conditions 36912.2.3 Results and Discussion 37212.3 Analytical Models of Depinning Force on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 37412.4 Analytical Models of Contact Angles on Superhydrophobic Surfaces 37812.5 De-Icing Property of Superhydrophobic Surfaces under Static Conditions 38112.5.1 De-Icing Test under Static Conditions 38112.5.2 Results and Discussion 38212.6 Conclusions 384Acknowledgments 384References 38413 Ice Adhesion and Anti-Icing Using Microtextured Surfaces 389Mool C. Gupta and Alan Mulroney13.1 Introduction 38913.1.1 Background 38913.1.2 State-of-the-Art 39213.2 Microtextured Surfaces: Wetting Characteristics and Anti-Icing Properties 39313.2.1 Wetting on Microtextured Surfaces 39313.2.2 Wetting and Icephobic Surfaces 39613.2.3 Ice Adhesion to Microtextured Surfaces 39813.3 Measurement Methods for Ice Adhesion 39813.3.1 Force Measurement Techniques 39913.3.2 Contact Area Measurements 40013.3.3 Measurement Variance and Error 40113.4 Fabrication Methods for Microtextured Surfaces 40213.4.1 Micro/Nanoparticle Coatings 40213.4.2 Chemical Etching 40313.4.3 Laser Ablation Techniques 40413.4.4 Embossing Techniques 40613.5 Microtextured Surfaces and Anti-Icing Applications 40713.5.1 Solar 40813.5.2 Wind 40913.5.3 Aircraft 41013.5.4 HVAC 41013.6 Future Outlook 411Acknowledgments 411References 41214 Icephobic Surfaces: Features and Challenges 417Michael Grizen and Manish K. Tiwari14.1 Introduction 41814.2 Features and Challenges in Rational Fabrication of Icephobic Surfaces 41814.3 Wettability 42014.4 Surface Engineering 42214.4.1 Repelling Impacting Droplets 42214.4.1.1 Drop Impact Characterization 42214.4.1.2 Enhancing Surface Resistance against Drop Impact 42514.4.1.3 Additional Factors Affecting Supercooled Droplet Impacts 43114.4.2 Freezing Delay 43214.4.2.1 Delaying Freezing of a Droplet 43214.4.2.2 Delaying Frost Formation 43714.4.3 Ice Adhesion 44314.4.3.1 Theory 44314.4.3.2 Strategies to Lower Ice Adhesion Strength 44714.5 De-Icing 45414.5.1 Electro- and Photo-Thermal 45514.5.2 Magneto- and Photo-Thermal 45614.6 Summary 457References 45815 Bio-Inspired Anti-Icing Surface Materials 467Shuwang Wu, Yichen Yan, Dong Wu, Zhiyuan He and Ximin HeGlossary of Symbols 468Glossary of Abbreviations 46815.1 Introduction 46915.2 Depressing Ice Nucleation 47115.3 Retarding Ice Propagation 47415.4 Reducing Ice Adhesion 47915.5 All-in-One Anti-Icing Materials 48215.6 Summary and Conclusions 485References 48616 Testing the Durability of Anti-Icing Coatings 495Sergei A. Kulinich, Denis Masson, Xi-Wen Du and Alexandre M. Emelyanenko16.1 Introduction 49616.2 Icing/Deicing Tests and Ice Types 49716.2.1 Evaluating the Durability of Surfaces 49816.2.2 Rough Superhydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 50616.2.3 Smooth Hydrophobic Surfaces and their Durability 51116.3 Concluding Remarks 513References 51417 Durability Assessment of Icephobic Coatings 521Alireza Hakimian, Sina Nazifi and Hadi Ghasemi17.1 Introduction 52217.2 UV-Induced Degradation 52317.2.1 Autocatalytic Photo-Induced Degradation Mechanism 52317.2.2 Factors Affecting UV Resistance 52417.2.3 UV-Induced Photo-Oxidation Prevention 52517.3 Hydrolytic Degradation of Coatings 52717.4 Atmospheric Conditions and Changes in Coating Performance 52917.5 Mechanical Durability of Coating 53217.5.1 Cracking 53317.5.2 Erosion of Coatings 53517.5.3 Abrasion 53617.6 Methods for Durability Assessment of an Icephobic Coating 53917.7 Summary 542References 54318 Experimental Investigations on Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings for Aircraft Inflight Icing Mitigation 547Yang Liu and Hui Hu18.1 Introduction About Aircraft Icing Phenomena 54818.2 Impact Icing Pertinent to Aircraft Icing vs. Conventional Frosting or Static Icing 55118.3 State-of-the-Art Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 55318.3.1 Superhydrophobic Surfaces with Micro-/Nano-Scale Textures 55518.3.2 Slippery Liquid-Infused Porous Surfaces 55718.3.3 Icephobic Soft Materials with Ultra-Low Ice Adhesion Strength and Good Mechanical Durability 55818.4 Comparison of Ice Adhesion Strengths of Different Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings 56018.5 Durability of the Bio-Inspired Icephobic Coatings under High-Speed Droplet Impacting 56218.6 Icing Tunnel Testing to Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Icephobic Coatings for Impact Icing Mitigation 56618.7 Summary 569Acknowledgments 571References 57119 Effect of and Protection from Ice Accretion on Aircraft 577Zhenlong Wu and Qiang WangGlossary 57719.1 Introduction 57819.2 Fundamental Icing Parameters 57919.2.1 Droplet Diameter 57919.2.2 Liquid Water Content 58019.2.3 Ambient Icing Temperature 58119.3 Types of Ice on Aircraft 58119.3.1 Rime Ice 58119.3.2 Glaze Ice 58219.3.3 Mixed Ice 58319.4 Aircraft Icing Effects 58419.4.1 Iced Aerodynamics 58419.4.1.1 Drag Rise 58419.4.1.2 Lift Reduction 58619.4.1.3 Moment Variation 58919.4.1.4 Separation Bubble Formation 59019.4.1.5 Boundary Layer Thickening 59219.4.2 Iced Flight Mechanics 59419.4.2.1 Flight Performance Disruption 59419.4.2.2 Stability and Control Degradation 59619.5 Sensing of and Protection from Aircraft Icing 59619.5.1 Sensing of Ice Accretion 59619.5.2 De-Icing and Anti-Icing 59819.5.3 Envelope Protection 59919.5.4 Control Reconfiguration 60119.6 Summary 603Funding and Acknowledgement 603References 60320 Numerical Modeling and Its Application to Inflight Icing 607Kwanjung Yee20.1 Introduction 60820.2 Aircraft Icing 60920.2.1 Icing Environment 60920.2.1.1 Cloud Formation 60920.2.1.2 Cloud Classification 60920.2.1.3 Icing Cloud 61320.2.1.4 Icing Envelope 61520.2.2 Icing Mechanism 61720.2.2.1 Fundamentals of Icing 61720.2.2.2 Characterization of Ice Shape 62020.2.2.3 Critical Issues in Icing Physics 62120.3 Numerical Technique for Inflight Icing 62520.3.1 Composition of the Inflight Icing Code 62620.3.2 Flow Analysis Solver 62820.3.2.1 Inviscid Flow Solver 62820.3.2.2 Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) Equation 63120.3.3 Droplet Trajectory Module 63520.3.3.1 Lagrangian Approach 63520.3.3.2 Eulerian Approach 63720.3.4 Thermodynamic Module 63920.3.4.1 Messinger Model 63920.3.4.2 Extended Messinger Model (Stefan Equation) 64120.3.4.3 Shallow Water Icing Model (SWIM) 64220.3.5 Ice Growth Module 64420.3.6 Application of the Numerical Simulation 64520.3.6.1 2D Airfoil 64620.3.6.2 3D DLR-F6 Configuration 64720.3.6.3 Rotorcraft Fuselage 64920.4 Numerical Simulation of Icing Protection System (IPS) 65120.4.1 IPS 65120.4.2 Simulation for IPS 65320.4.3 Thermal IPS Simulation Analysis 65520.4.3.1 Electro-Thermal IPS Simulation 65520.4.3.2 Water Film Analysis 65620.5 Numerical Issues in the Inflight Icing Code 65820.5.1 Analysis of the Surface Roughness 65820.5.2 Analysis of the Transition in the Boundary Layer Problem 65920.5.3 Analysis of the Rotor Blade Icing Problem 66020.5.4 Analysis of the Uncertainty Qualification (UQ) 66120.6 Summary 662References 663

Select Guide Rating