Hydrogen Energy

Vincent J. DelGatto, M.Eng. PE, is recent Chair of the IEEE NY Power and Energy and Industrial Applications Societies and co-author of the IEEE-USA Energy Policy Committee “National Energy Policy Recommendations.” His experience spans over 40 years in the electric power industry and academia. His work at Con Edison and GE focused on high voltage electromagnetic fields, cost analysis and safety of shared transmission right of way for electric and gas pipelines. He currently consults on the Levelized Full System Costs of Electricity. Louis Theodore, Eng.Sc.D., is a retired Professor of Chemical Engineering, having taught for 50 years at Manhattan College. He is the author of several publications, including Fluid Flow for the Practicing Chemical Engineer, Thermodynamics for the Practicing Engineer, Mass Transfer Operations for the Practicing Engineer, Air Pollution Control Equipment Calculations, and Pollution Prevention. R. Ryan Dupont, Ph.D., is Cazier Professor of Civil and Environmental Engineering at Utah State University and Research Associate at the Utah Water Research Laboratory. He is a Life Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers, and the author of many research publications and books, including Groundwater and Soil Remediation: Process Design and Cost Estimating of Proven Technologies, Water Resource Management Issues: Basic Principles and Applications, and Unit Operations in Environmental Engineering. Matthew C. Ogwu, Ph.D., is an Assistant Professor in the Goodnight Family Sustainable Development Department at Appalachian State University. He is an interdisciplinary academic with transdisciplinary skills and diverse convergence research interests pertinent to the assessment of coupled human and natural as well as socio-ecological systems and has numerous awards, research grants, and scholarships to his name. Dr. Ogwu serves on the board of and as a reviewer for many peer-reviewed journals. He continues to volunteer his time and skills to promote sustainable development.

• Preface xviiPart I Energy Overview 11 Glossary of Key Energy Terms 31.1 Introduction 31.2 Importance of Energy Literacy 41.3 Glossary 41.4 Symbols and Acronyms 42References 472 Introduction to Energy and Energy Issues 482.1 Introduction 482.2 Early History of Energy 492.3 Later History of Energy 502.4 Energy “Emergencies” 502.5 Net Energy Analysis 512.6 Hydrogen as an Energy/Fuel 532.7 The Future 54References 563 Energy Resources 573.1 Introduction 573.2 Coal 583.3 Oil 593.4 Natural Gas 603.5 Shale Oil/Tar Sands 623.5.1 Shale Oil 623.5.2 Tar Sands 633.6 Solar Energy 633.6.1 Passive Solar Lighting and Heating 643.6.2 Solar Electricity Production 653.7 Nuclear Energy 663.8 Geothermal Energy 683.9 Wind Energy 693.10 Hydrokinetic Energy 713.10.1 Hydropower 713.10.2 Tidal Energy 723.10.3 Ocean Thermal Energy 723.10.4 Wave Energy 733.11 Biomass-Based Fuels 73References 744 Environmental Policy and Regulatory Considerations for Hydrogen Energy 77Marybeth Reynolds4.1 Introduction 774.2 Opportunities and Benefits for the Emerging Hydrogen Energy Industry 784.2.1 The Production of Hydrogen 784.2.2 Clean, Green Zero-Carbon Hydrogen 794.2.3 Low-Carbon Blue Hydrogen 804.2.4 Fuel Cells 804.2.5 Hydrogen’s Potential Uses in Decarbonization 814.2.6 Challenges 814.3 Hydrogen Energy Policy Priorities 824.3.1 Keep the Focus on Climate Goals and Deploy Hydrogen Strategically 824.3.2 Prioritize Equity and Public Health 834.3.3 Consider Long-Term Efficiency and Cost 834.3.4 Adopt Rigorous Standards and Definitions for Clean Hydrogen 844.4 U.S. Federal Energy Policies and Regulatory Frameworks 844.4.1 Hydrogen in Historical U.S. Energy Policy 844.4.2 Significant Federal Policies and Initiatives Since 2016 854.4.2.1 H2@Scale, 2016 854.4.2.2 Hydrogen Program Plan, 2020 864.4.2.3 Hydrogen Shot, 2021 864.4.2.4 Bipartisan Infrastructure Law, 2021 874.4.2.5 Inflation Reduction Act, 2022 874.4.3 Current Federal Regulation of Hydrogen 884.5 The Role of the States 914.6 Global Hydrogen Energy Policies and Priorities 924.6.1 Summary of Hydrogen Strategies in Key Global Markets 924.6.2 Policy Priorities to Accelerate a Global Market for Clean Hydrogen 924.6.2.1 Establishing Hydrogen Strategies 924.6.2.2 Developing and Adopting International Codes and Regulations 934.6.2.3 Leveraging Domestic Resources and Export Opportunities 934.7 Summary 93References 935 Thermodynamic Considerations 965.1 Introduction 965.2 Energy Fundamentals and Principles 975.2.1 Potential Energy 975.2.2 Kinetic Energy 975.2.3 Energy Fundamentals 985.2.4 Energy Principles 985.3 The First Law of Thermodynamics 1005.4 Enthalpy Effects 1015.4.1 Sensible Enthalpy Effects of Heating 1015.4.2 Latent Enthalpy Changes 1025.4.3 Chemical Reaction Enthalpy Effects 1035.5 Second Law Calculations 1045.6 Phase Equilibrium 1055.7 Stoichiometry 1065.8 Chemical Reaction Equilibrium 1075.9 Conservation Laws 1085.9.1 Conservation of Mass 1095.9.2 Conservation of Energy 1095.10 Ideal Gas Law 110References 1126 Fuel Cells 1136.1 Introduction 1136.2 Electrical Units 1146.3 Fuel Cell Overview 1146.4 Unit Cells 1156.4.1 Basic Structure 1156.4.2 Internal Fuel Cell Process Details 1166.5 Critical Functions of Cell Components 1176.6 Fuel Cell Stacking 1186.6.1 Planar-Bipolar Stacking Fuel Cell (PBSFC) 1186.6.2 Stacks with Tubular Cells 1196.7 Fuel Cell Systems 1206.8 Fuel Cell Types 1206.8.1 Polymer Electrolyte Fuel Cells 1236.8.1.1 Advantages 1236.8.1.2 Disadvantages 1236.8.2 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFCs) 1236.8.2.1 Advantages 1246.8.2.2 Disadvantages 1246.8.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFCs) 1246.8.3.1 Advantages 1246.8.3.2 Disadvantages 1256.8.4 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFCs) 1256.8.4.1 Advantages 1256.8.4.2 Disadvantages 1256.8.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFCs) 1256.8.5.1 Advantages 1266.8.5.2 Disadvantages 1266.9 Fuel Cell Characteristics 1266.10 Overall Advantages/Disadvantages 1276.11 Batteries 1286.12 Summary 129References 130Part II Select Hydrogen Energy Topics 1317 Hydrogen Energy Overview 1337.1 Introduction 1337.2 Early History 1357.3 Processing 1367.4 Storage 1387.4.1 Physical-Based Storage 1387.4.2 Materials-Based Storage 1397.5 Transportation and Transmission 1397.6 Uses 1407.6.1 Potential Role of Ammonia for Alternative Vehicle Fuel in a Hydrogen Economy 1417.7 Environmental Issues 142References 1438 Government Hydrogen Programs 1448.1 Introduction 1448.2 Department of Energy Programs 1458.3 Other Federal Programs 1468.4 State Programs 1468.4.1 California 1478.4.2 Oregon 1478.4.3 Washington 1488.4.4 South Carolina 1488.5 Tax Incentives 1488.5.1 ITC for Fuel Cell Property 1498.5.2 New Qualified Fuel Cell Motor Vehicle Credit 1498.5.3 Alternative Fuel Vehicle Refueling Property Credit 1498.5.4 Alternative Fuel Credit 1508.6 Project Financing 1508.7 Insurance Coverage 1518.8 Stakeholder Engagement 151References 1529 Hydrogen Physical and Chemical Properties 153Onwukaeme Chibuzo Kenneth9.1 Introduction 1539.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Matter 1539.2.1 Physical Properties 1549.2.2 Chemical Properties 1569.3 Properties of Mixtures 1589.4 Properties of Hydrogen 1599.4.1 Chemical and Molecular Properties of Hydrogen 1599.4.2 Physical Properties of Hydrogen 1629.5 Hydrogen Isotopes 1639.6 The Hydrogen Bond 1659.7 The Quintessential Energy Carrier 166References 16710 Hydrogen-Bearing Compounds 16910.1 Introduction 16910.2 Water 17010.3 Deuterium 17110.4 Ammonia 17610.5 Methane 17710.6 Other Hydrocarbon Molecules 17910.6.1 Open-Chain Hydrocarbons 17910.6.2 The Alkene Series 17910.6.3 The Alkyne Series 18010.6.4 Cyclic Hydrocarbons 18010.6.5 Other Organic Compound Groups 18010.7 The Alkane Series 180References 18111 Hydrogen Production Processes 18211.1 Introduction 18211.2 Overview of Hydrogen Production Processes 18511.3 Fossil Fuels 18611.4 Water Splitting Production Processes 18811.4.1 Water Electrolysis Production Process 18911.4.2 Photoelectrical Hydrogen Production Process 19011.4.3 Thermochemical Water Splitting Production Process 19011.5 Biomass Production Processes 19111.6 Hydrogen Purification 19411.6.1 Carbon Dioxide and Hydrogen Sulfide Removal 19511.6.2 Adsorptive Purification 19511.6.3 Cryogenic Liquid Purification 19611.6.4 Carbon Monoxide Removal 19611.7 Hydrogen Laboratory Processes 19611.8 Emerging Hydrogen Technologies 197References 19812 Hydrogen Storage 19912.1 Introduction 19912.2 Chemical Industry Storage Options 20012.2.1 Gas Storage 20012.2.2 Liquid Storage 20012.2.3 Tank Details 20112.2.4 Storage Batteries 20112.3 Hydrogen Storage Overview 20212.3.1 Compressed Gas 20212.3.2 Liquid Storage 20212.3.3 Underground Storage 20212.3.4 Metal Hydrides 20312.3.5 Liquid Organic Hydrogen Carriers 20312.4 Gaseous Hydrogen Storage 20312.4.1 Composite Tanks 20312.4.2 Glass Microspheres 20412.5 Liquid Hydrogen Storage 20412.5.1 Cryogenic Liquid Hydrogen 20412.5.2 Storage as a Constituent in Other Liquids 20412.5.3 Rechargeable Organic Liquids 20512.6 Solid Hydrogen Storage 20512.6.1 Carbon and Other High Surface Area Materials 20612.6.1.1 Carbon-Based Materials 20612.6.1.2 Other High Surface Area Materials 20612.6.2 Rechargeable Metal Hydrides 20612.6.2.1 Alanates 20712.6.2.2 Borohydrides 20712.6.3 Water-Reactive Chemical Hydrides 20712.6.4 Thermal Chemical Hydrides 20712.7 The Moon Project 20712.8 Summary of Hydrogen Storage Strategies 210References 21113 Hydrogen Transportation and Transmission 21313.1 Introduction 21313.2 Hydrogen Transportation/Transmission Options 21413.2.1 Motor Carriers 21513.2.2 Pipelines 21513.2.3 Ships 21513.2.4 Trains 21613.3 Traditional Transportation Options 21613.3.1 Air Transportation 21613.3.2 Rail Transportation 21813.3.3 Water Transportation 21813.3.4 Highway Transportation 21913.4 Chemical Industry Transportation Options 21913.4.1 Transportation of Liquids 21913.4.2 Transportation of Gases 22013.5 Hydrogen Transportation: Pipelines 22013.6 Hydrogen Transportation: Mobile 22113.7 On-Site Hydrogen Production 22213.8 Transportation via Chemical Hydrogen Carriers 22313.9 International/Global Hydrogen Transportation 22313.10 Regulation Issues 22413.11 New Hydrogen Transmission Options 226References 22714 Hydrogen Conversion 22914.1 Introduction 22914.2 Energy Conversion Technical Details 23014.3 Electric Power Systems 23114.4 The Grid System 23414.4.1 Storage Costs Multiply to Achieve 90% Capacity Factor for Large Solar PV 23614.4.2 Cost of Vogtle 3 and 4 Nuclear is Less than PV with Storage for 90% Capacity Factor 23814.5 Conversion: The Combustion Process 23814.6 Conversion: The Fuel Cell Process 240References 24115 Hydrogen Uses 24315.1 Introduction 24315.2 Power Generation 24515.3 Transportation 24615.4 Industry Feedstock 24815.5 Hydrogen-Containing Feedstock Chemicals 25115.6 Heating 25215.7 Energy Storage 253References 25416 The Quintessential Hydrogen Byproduct: Potable Water 25616.1 Introduction 25616.2 Physical and Chemical Properties of Water 25716.3 The Hydrologic Cycle 25816.4 The Desalination Process 25916.5 Traditional Seawater Desalination Processes 26016.5.1 Evaporation Processes 26016.5.2 Reverse Osmosis 26116.5.3 Crystallization Processes 26216.6 New Process Options for Potable Water Production 26216.6.1 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water from Fossil Fuels 26316.6.2 System and Method for Obtaining Potable Water Employing Geothermal Energy 26416.6.3 Water Requirement of Electrolysis 26516.7 The Theodore Hydrogen Water Byproduct Process 266References 26717 Safety Considerations 26817.1 Introduction 26817.2 Hydrogen Details 27017.3 Worker Safety Regulations and Requirements 27117.4 Site Safety Plans 27317.5 Chemical Safety Data Sheets 27417.6 The Hydrogen SDS 280References 284Part III Technical Engineering Issues 28518 Environmental Health and Hazard Risk Assessment 28718.1 Introduction 28718.2 The Health Risk Assessment Process 28818.3 The Health Risk Assessment Process Components 29018.3.1 Health Problem Identification 29018.3.2 Dose–Response Assessment 29118.3.3 Exposure Assessment 29218.3.4 Risk Characterization 29318.4 Hazard Risk Assessment Process 29418.5 The Hazard Risk Assessment Process Components 29518.5.1 Hazard Identification 29618.5.2 Hazard/Accident Probability 29718.5.3 Accident Consequence Evaluation 29818.6 Future Trends 299References 30019 Energy–Environmental Interactions 30119.1 Introduction 30119.2 U.S. Hydrogen Energy Policy 30219.3 U.S. Energy–Environmental Policy Issues 30319.4 Individual State Energy Policies 30519.5 Global Energy Policies 30619.6 Environmental Concerns: A Technological Mandate 30919.7 Net Energy Concepts 31119.8 Interaction with Other Goals 313References 31420 Ethical Considerations 31620.1 Introduction 31620.2 The Present State of Ethics 31720.3 Dos and Don’ts 31820.4 Integrity 31920.5 Moral Issues 32020.6 Guardianship 32220.7 Engineering Ethics 32320.8 Future Trends in Professional and Environmental Ethics 32420.9 Case Studies 32620.9.1 Case Study 1 32620.9.2 Case Study 2 32720.9.3 Case Study 3 327References 32821 Economic Considerations 33021.1 Introduction 33021.2 Economic and Finance Definitions 33221.2.1 Simple Interest 33221.2.2 Compound Interest 33321.2.3 Present Worth 33321.2.4 Time Value of Money 33421.2.5 Depreciation 33421.2.6 Equipment Cost and Cost Indexes 33521.2.7 Capital Recovery Factor 33521.2.8 Net Present Worth 33621.2.9 Perpetual Life 33621.2.10 Break-Even Point 33721.2.11 Approximate Rate of Return 33721.2.12 Exact Rate of Return 33721.2.13 Bonds 33721.2.14 Incremental Cost 33821.2.15 Inflation 33821.3 Investment and Risks 33821.4 The Traditional Economic Evaluation Process 33921.5 Capital and Operating Costs 34121.6 Project and Process Evaluation 34221.7 Hydrogen Energy Economy Considerations 34221.8 Concluding Remarks 344References 34622 Optimization Considerations 34722.1 Introduction 34722.2 History of Optimization 34922.3 Scope of Optimization 35122.4 General Analytical Formulation of the Optimum 35222.5 Mathematical Concepts in Linear Programming 35522.6 Applied Concepts in Linear Programming 35622.7 Optimization of Existing Systems 359References 36223 Illustrative Examples 36323.1 Introduction 36323.2 Energy Principles 36323.2.1 The Ideal Gas Law 36323.2.2 Mass Conservation Law 36423.2.3 Stoichiometry 36423.3 Thermodynamics 36523.3.1 Partial Pressure 36523.3.2 Gross Heating Value of a Fuel 36623.3.3 Material and Energy Balance Calculations 36723.4 Energy Systems 36823.4.1 Energy Conversion Efficiency 36823.4.2 Energy–Mass Relationships 36923.4.3 Energy Storage 36923.5 Environmental Issues 37023.5.1 Catalyst Recovery 37023.5.2 Explosion Overpressure 37123.5.3 Weibull Distribution Calculation 37323.6 Ethics 37423.6.1 Domestic Ethical Issues 37423.6.2 Production Increase Demands 37423.6.3 ISO 14000 Consulting Dilemma 37423.7 Economics 37523.7.1 Optimum Pipe Diameter Considerations 37523.7.2 Optimum Hydrogen Plant Profit 37623.7.3 Plant Selection Based on Tax Credit Availability 37823.8 SDS Information 37923.8.1 Layman’s Definition of an SDS 37923.8.2 Limitation of SDSs 37923.8.3 Physical and Chemical Characteristics Contained in SDSs 38023.9 Optimization 38023.9.1 Profit Model Optimization 38023.9.2 Hydrogen Plant Operation 38123.9.3 Optimization of Utility Conversion to Hydrogen 382References 383Index 384