Handbook of Assisted and Amendment-Enhanced Sustainable Remediation Technology

Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, is Emeritus Professor in the School of Life Sciences at the University of Hyderabad in India. He has published over 216 papers in scholarly journals and edited 34 books. He received his doctorate in Botany from Lucknow University, India in 1979. Based on an independent study by Stanford University scientists in 2020, he figured in the top 2% of scientists from India, ranked number 1 in Environmental Sciences (116 in world).

• List of Contributors xviiPreface xxvPart I Global Scenario of Remediation and Combined Clean Biofuel Production 11 Global Remediation Industry and Trends 3Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad, Lander de Jesus Alves and Fabio Carvalho Nunes1.1 Introduction 31.1.1 Rise of Phytoremediation 41.1.2 The Phytoremediation Industry 51.1.3 The Key Players in Global Remediation and Phytoremediation 101.1.3.1 Markets by Sector 111.1.3.2 Markets by Application 111.1.3.3 Sizes of Market Sectors Potentially Available to Phytoremediation 111.2 Global 121.3 Mining in Latin America and Phytoremediation Possibilities 16Acknowledgements 23References 232 Sustainable Valorization of Biomass: From Assisted Phytoremediation to Green Energy Production 29Martina Grifoni, Francesca Pedron, Meri Barbafieri, Irene Rosellini, Gianniantonio Petruzzelli and Elisabetta Franchi2.1 Introduction 292.2 Bioenergy: The Role of Biomass 302.3 Assisted Phytoremediation: Valorization of Biomass 332.4 Assisted Phytoremediation-Bioenergy: An Integrated Approach 372.5 Conclusions 43References 44Part II Biochar-Based Soil and Water Remediation 533 Biochar – Production, Properties, and Service to Environmental Protection against Toxic Metals 55Monika Ga³wa-Widera3.1 Introduction 553.2 How to Produce Biochar 553.3 Biochar Properties 573.4 Biochar in the Service of Environmental Protection 593.5 Soil Characteristics 593.6 Environmental Hazards Caused by Heavy Metals 603.7 Characteristics of Selected Heavy Metals 623.8 Zinc 643.9 Copper 643.10 Lead 653.11 Cadmium 663.12 Soil Pollution 673.13 What is Remediation and What is it for? 683.14 Improving Soil Properties 693.15 Removal of Impurities 693.16 The Addition of Biochar to Contaminated Soils may be Such a Solution 703.17 Summary 72References 734 Biochar-based Water Treatment Systems for Clean Water Provision 77Dwiwahju Sasongko, David Gunawan and Antonius Indarto4.1 Introduction 774.2 Synthesis of Biochar 774.2.1 Pyrolysis Process 774.2.2 Pyrolysis Technology 784.3 Biochar Properties 804.3.1 Biochar Surface Chemistry 804.3.2 Pyrolysis Effect on Chemical Properties of Biochar 814.3.3 Pyrolysis Effect on Physical Properties of Biochar 814.4 Mechanism of Adsorption 824.4.1 Heavy Metal Removal Mechanism 824.4.2 Organic Contaminants Removal Mechanism 824.4.3 Pathogenic Organism Removal Mechanism 834.5 Factors Affecting Adsorption of Contaminants on Biochar 844.5.1 Biochar Properties 844.5.2 Post Treatment or Modification 854.5.3 Solution pH 874.5.4 Co-existed Ions 874.5.5 Dosage of Adsorbents 874.5.6 Temperature 874.5.7 Contact Time 874.5.8 Initial Concentration of Pollutants 884.6 Biochar-Based Water Treatment Systems 884.6.1 Biochar Supply 884.6.2 Biochar Use 894.6.3 Regeneration 904.6.3.1 Thermal Regeneration 904.6.3.2 Solvent Regeneration 934.6.3.3 Microwave Irradiation Regeneration 944.6.4 Supercritical Fluid Regeneration 944.6.5 Sustainability of Biochar Utilization 95References 955 Biochar for Wastewater Treatment 103Anna Kwarciak-Koz³owska and Renata W³odarczyk5.1 Biochar Production and Its Characteristics 1035.2 Modification of Biochar 1055.3 Comparison of Biochar with Activated Carbon 1055.4 Biochar Adsorption Mechanism 1065.5 Adsorption Kinetics of Aqueous-Phase Organic Compounds 1085.6 Influence of pH, Temperature, and Biochar Dose on the Adsorption Process 1085.7 Biochar Technology in Wastewater Treatment 1105.8 Summary 112Acknowledgment 112References 1126 Biochar for Bioremediation of Toxic Metals 119Renata W³odarczyk and Anna Kwarciak-Koz³owska6.1 The Idea of Using Biochar with the Assumption of Closed Circulation 1196.2 The Role of Biochar in Soil - General Information 1206.3 Biochar as a Sorbent – Physical and Structural Composition 1216.4 The Role of Biochar in Removing Heavy Metals from Soil 1236.5 Utilization of Selected Heavy Metals from Soil 1236.6 Mechanism of Heavy Metals-Biochar 1246.7 Summary 126Acknowledgment 126References 1277 Biochar Assisted Remediation of Toxic Metals and Metalloids 131Shalini Dhiman, Mohd Ibrahim, Kamini Devi, Neerja Sharma, Nitika Kapoor, Ravinderjit Kaur, Nandni Sharma, Raman Tikoria, Puja Ohri, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj7.1 Introduction 1317.2 Biochar and its Remarkable Physical Chemical and Biological Properties 1327.2.1 Physical Properties of Biochar 1327.2.1.1 Density and Porosity 1327.2.1.2 Surface Area of Biochar 1327.2.1.3 Pore Volume and Pore Size Distribution 1327.2.1.4 Water Holding Capacity and Hydrophobicity 1327.2.1.5 Mechanical Stability 1337.2.2 Chemical Properties 1337.2.2.1 Atomic Ratios 1337.2.2.2 Elemental Composition 1337.2.2.3 Energy Content 1337.2.2.4 Fixed Carbon and Volatile Matter 1347.2.2.5 Presence of Functional Groups 1347.2.2.6 pH of Biochar 1347.2.2.7 Cation Exchange Capacity 1347.2.3 Biological Properties of Biochar 1347.2.3.1 Biochar as a Habitat for Soil Microorganisms 1347.2.3.2 Biochar as a Substrate for the Soil Biota 1357.3 Heavy Metal Pollutants 1357.4 Interactions between Biochar and Heavy Metal 1367.4.1 Types of Interactions Occurs between Biochar and Heavy Metals 1367.4.1.1 Direct Interaction 1367.4.1.2 Electrostatic Attractions 1367.4.1.3 Ion Exchange 1377.4.1.4 Complexation 1377.4.1.5 Precipitation 1377.4.1.6 Sorption 1377.4.1.7 Indirect Interactions 1377.4.1.8 Biochar Metal Interactions 1387.5 Biochar as a Bioremediator 1387.5.1 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Pollutant by the Use of Microorganism and Biochar 1397.5.2 Bioremediation of Heavy Metal Pollutants by the Use of Plants and Biochar 1407.5.3 Bioremediation of Heavy Metals Pollutant through the Combination of Biochar, Plant, and Microorganism 1437.6 Application of Biochar in Bioremediation of Mining Area 1437.6.1 Application of Biochar in Bioremediation of Acid Mine Wastes 1467.6.2 Alkaline Tailing Soils 1487.7 Limitation of Biochar Amended Bioremediation 1487.7.1 Phytoextraction of Arsenic 1497.7.2 Phytoremediation of Sewage Sludge 1507.8 Conclusion 150References 1508 Use of Biochar as an Amendment for Remediation of Heavy Metal-Contaminated Soils 163Subodh Kumar Maiti and Dipita Ghosh8.1 Introduction 1638.2 Biochar Production Conditions 1648.3 Modification to Improve Remediation Potential of Biochar 1658.4 Mechanism of Metal Immobilization by Biochar 1698.4.1 Direct Biochar–Heavy Metal Interaction 1708.4.1.1 Electrostatic Attraction 1708.4.1.2 Ion Exchange 1708.4.1.3 Complexation 1708.4.1.4 Precipitation 1708.4.2 Indirect Biochar–Heavy Metals–Soils Interactions 1718.4.2.1 Impact on Soil pH, CEC, and Organic Carbon Content, thus Metal Mobility 1718.4.2.2 Impacts on Soil Mineral Composition and Metal Mobility by Biochar Application 1718.5 Immobilization of Heavy Metals by Biochar 1718.6 Application of Biochar for Immobilization of Heavy Metals and Enhancement of Plant Growth 1728.7 Conclusions 173References 1739 Biochars for Remediation of Recalcitrant Soils to Enhance Agronomic Performance 179Anna Grobelak and Marta Jaskulak9.1 Introduction 1799.2 Biochar Properties 1799.2.1 Production 1799.2.2 Properties 1809.3 Application and Impact of Biochar on Soils 1839.3.1 Biochar in Soil Carbon Sequestration 1849.3.2 Influence on Soil Physical and Chemical Properties 1849.3.3 Influence on Microbial Activity and Soil Biota 1869.4 Conclusions 186Acknowledgment 186References 18710 Biochar Amendment Improves Crop Production in Problematic Soils 189Bhupinder Dhir10.1 Introduction 18910.2 Roles of Biochar in Soil Improvement 18910.2.1 Physical Characteristics 19010.2.2 Chemical Properties 19010.2.3 Biological Indices 19110.3 Other Roles of Biochar 19210.4 Agricultural Productivity in Biochar Amended Soil 19210.4.1 Advantages of Using Biochar as a Soil Supplement 19510.5 Reclamation of Degraded Soils Using Biochar 19610.6 Conclusions 197References 198Part III Organic Amendments Use in Remediation 20511 Use of Organic Amendments in Phytoremediation of Metal-Contaminated Soils: Prospects and Challenges 207Galina Koptsik, Graeme Spiers, Sergey Koptsik and Peter Beckett11.1 Agricultural Organic Waste 20911.2 Forestry By-Products 20911.3 Composts 21211.4 Sewage Sludge/Biosolids 21711.5 Humic Substances 22011.6 Biochar 22211.7 Constructed Organic-Derived Soils 22311.8 Directions for Future Research 224Acknowledgments 226References 22612 Rice Husk and Wood Derived Charcoal for Remediation of Metal Contaminated Soil 235Boda Ravi Kiran and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad12.1 Introduction 23512.2 Heavy Metal Contamination in Soils 23512.3 Rice Husk Ash (RHA) – Production, Characteristics, and Application 23612.3.1 Utilization of Rice Husk Ash as Soil Amendment and Metal Removal 23712.4 Charcoal – Production and Applications 23912.4.1 Charcoal as Amendment and Metal Removal 24512.5 Conclusion 256References 25613 Enhanced Composting Using Woody Biomass and Its Application in Wasteland Reclamation 267Zeba Usmani, Tiit Lukk, Eve-Ly Ojangu, Hegne Pupart, Kairit Zovo and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad13.1 Introduction 26713.2 Composting Process 27013.3 Types of Composting 27113.4 Woody Biomass Waste as Co-composting Material 27113.4.1 Usage of Woody Biochar in Composting 27213.4.2 Woody Biochar-Microbial Consortia 27213.4.3 Usage of Wood Ash in Composting 27413.4.4 Usage of Wood Derived Materials in Composting 27413.5 Advantages and Disadvantages of Composting Woody Biomass 27513.6 Application of Woody Biomass Compost in Restoration of Wastelands 27613.7 Conclusion 277Acknowledgment 277References 27714 Sewage Sludge as Soil Conditioner and Fertilizer 283Krzysztof Fija³kowski and Anna Kwarciak-Koz³owska14.1 Introduction 28314.2 Sewage Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plants 28314.2.1 Soil Remediation Practices 28414.2.2 Sewage Sludge in the Remediation of Degraded Soils 28614.2.2.1 Sewage Sludge as a Source of NPK 28614.2.3 Substrates Produced or Based on Sewage Sludge–Biosolids 28714.2.4 Biosolids as Fertility Restorer and Conditioner 28714.2.5 Impact of Sewage Sludge and Biosolids on Soil Microorganisms 29014.2.6 Sewage Sludge Amendments in Relation to CO2 Sequestration 29214.2.7 Conclusion 292References 29215 Sustainable Soil Remediation Using Organic Amendments 299Marta Jaskulak and Anna Grobelak15.1 Introduction 29915.2 Organic Amendments for Soil Remediation 30015.2.1 Composts 30015.2.2 Animal Manures and Biosolids 30015.3 Impact of Organic Amendments on Soils 30315.3.1 Influence on Soil Physical Properties 30315.3.2 Influence on Microbial Activities and Soil Biota 30515.3.3 Influence of the Content of Nitrogen and Phosphorus 30615.4 Potential Risks of the Use of Organic Amendments 30715.5 Conclusions 308References 309Part IV Advanced Technologies for Remediation of Inorganics and Organics 31316 Biosurfactant-Assisted Bioremediation of Crude Oil/Petroleum Hydrocarbon Contaminated Soil 315Jeevanandam Vaishnavi, Punniyakotti Parthipan, Arumugam Arul Prakash, Kuppusamy Sathishkumar and Aruliah Rajasekar16.1 Introduction 31516.2 Surfactants and Biosurfactants 31616.3 Microbial Surfactants 31616.4 Types of Biosurfactants 31816.4.1 Glycolipid Biosurfactants 31816.4.1.1 Rhamnolipids 31816.4.1.2 Trehalose 31816.4.1.3 Sophorolipid 31816.4.2 Phospholipids Biosurfactant 31916.4.3 Lipopeptides and Lipoproteins 31916.4.4 Fatty Acid 32016.4.5 Polymeric and Particulate Biosurfactant 32016.5 Optimization of Biosurfactants 32016.6 Biosurfactant in Bioremediation 32016.6.1 Glycolipids Mediated Crude Oil Remediation 32116.6.2 Lipopeptide Mediated Crude Oil/Hydrocarbons Degradation 32316.6.3 Bioemulsifiers Mediated Crude Oil/Hydrocarbons Degradation 32316.7 Challenges and Future Prospectives 32416.8 Conclusion 324References 32417 Advanced Technologies for the Remediation of Pesticide-Contaminated Soils 331Palak Bakshi, Arun Dev Singh, Jaspreet Kour, Sadaf Jan, Mohd Ibrahim, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj17.1 Introduction 33117.2 Consumption and Need for Removal 33217.2.1 Worldwide Consumption of Pesticide 33317.2.2 Production and Usage of Pesticide in India 33317.2.3 Need for Removal 33317.3 Remediation Technologies for Pesticidal Contamination 33517.3.1 Physico–Chemical Remediation 33517.3.1.1 Adsorption 33517.3.1.2 Oxidation–Reduction 33617.3.1.3 Catalytic Degradation 33817.3.1.4 Nano Technology 33817.3.2 Biological Remediation 34017.3.2.1 Role of Plants 34017.3.2.2 Role of Microflora 34117.4 Conclusion 342References 34418 Enzymes Assistance in Remediation of Contaminants and Pollutants 355Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad18.1 Introduction 35518.2 Cyanide Degradation 35618.3 Rhizosphere 36018.3.1 Degradation of Petroleum Hydrocarbons 36018.3.2 Degradation of Pesticides 361Acknowledgments 383References 38319 Thiol Assisted Metal Tolerance in Plants 389Pooja Sharma, Palak Bakshi, Dhriti Kapoor, Priya Arora, Jaspreet Kour, Rupinder Kaur, Ashutosh Sharma, Bilal Ahmad Mir and Renu Bhardwaj19.1 Introduction 38919.2 Sulfur Metabolism in Plants 39019.3 Thiols Induced Metal Tolerance in Plants 39019.3.1 Role of Metal Transporters 39119.3.2 Role of Thioredoxins and Glutaredoxins 39219.3.3 Role of Metallothioneins 39219.3.4 Role of Phytochelatins in Heavy Metal Stress Mitigation 39219.3.4.1 Heavy Metal Detoxification Mechanism 39319.3.5 Role of Glutathione in Heavy Metal Stress Mitigation 39419.4 Conclusion 396References 39720 Biological Remediation of Selenium in Soil and Water 403Siddhartha Narayan Borah, Suparna Sen, Hemen Sarma and Kannan Pakshirajan20.1 Introduction 40320.2 Sources of Selenium 40320.2.1 Soil 40420.2.2 Water 40420.2.3 Air 40420.3 Significance in Human Health 40520.4 Biological Remediation Processes 40720.4.1 Phytoremediation 40720.4.1.1 Phytoextraction 40720.4.1.2 Phytovolatilization 40820.4.1.3 Rhizofiltration 40820.4.2 Bioremediation 40920.4.2.1 Planktonic Cells of Axenic Bacterial Culture 40920.4.2.2 Biofilm of Axenic Bacterial Culture 41020.4.2.3 Microbial Consortia 41020.4.3 Bioamendment with Chelating Agents and Organic Matter 41120.4.4 Biosorption 41220.5 Conclusion 412References 413Part V Microbe and Plant Assisted Remediation of Inorganics and Organics 42321 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria for Soil Sustainability 425Raffia Siddique, Alvina Gul, Munir Ozturk and Volkan Altay21.1 Introduction 42521.2 Biofertilizer 42621.2.1 PSM Requirement in Plants 42621.2.2 Phosphate Solubilizing Microorganisms (PSM) 42621.2.3 Application of PSB Inoculants 42721.3 Mechanism of P Solubilization 42721.3.1 Lowering of Soil pH 42721.3.2 Chelation 42821.3.3 Mineralization 42921.4 PSB Help Plant Growth 42921.5 Phosphate Solubilizing Bacteria (PSB) 43021.5.1 Mechanism of Action of PSB 43121.6 Soil Sustainability with PSB 431References 43222 Microbe and Plant-Assisted Remediation of Organic Xenobiotics 437A.P. Pinto, M.E. Lopes, A. Dordio and J.E.F. Castanheiro22.1 Introduction 43722.2 Impact of PAHs on Environment 43922.3 PAHs in Soil and Sediments 44122.4 Molecular Weight and Aqueous Solubility 44222.5 Plant Assisted Remediation of PAHs 44322.5.1 Phytoremediation 44522.5.1.1 Phytoextraction 44722.5.1.2 Phytostabilization 44822.5.1.3 Phytovolatilization 44822.5.1.4 Phytodegradation 44822.5.1.5 Rhizodegradation 44922.6 Plant and Microbe Assisted Remediation – Synergistic Approaches 44922.7 Plant–Endophyte Partnership in Phytoremediation 45222.7.1 Endophyte Colonization and Survival 45322.7.2 Beneficial Mutualistic Interactions Between Endophytes and Their Hosts 45422.7.2.1 Nutrient Bioavailability 45722.7.2.2 Modulation and Synthesis of Phytohormones 45822.7.2.3 Defense Mechanisms against Phytopathogens 45922.7.3 Biosurfactants and Their Roles in Phytoremediation 45922.8 Conclusions 461References 46123 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR) Assisted Phytoremediation of Inorganic and Organic Contaminants Including Amelioration of Perturbed Marginal Soils 477Elisabetta Franchi and Danilo Fusini23.1 Introduction 47723.2 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria (PGPR): Features and Mechanisms 47823.2.1 Auxins, Cytokinins, Gibberellins 47923.2.2 Siderophores 48023.2.3 ACC Deaminase 48023.2.4 Phosphate Solubilization 48123.2.5 Nitrogen Fixation 48223.2.6 Indirect Mechanisms 48223.3 Influence of PGPR on Heavy Metals and Hydrocarbons Remediation 48223.4 Plant Growth-Promoting Rhizobacteria to Face Salinity and Drought in Marginal Soils 48623.4.1 Survival to Abiotic Stress 48623.4.2 Affecting the Drought Pressure 48723.4.3 Improving the Salinity Tolerance 48823.4.4 Phytodepuration for Water Reclamation 48923.5 Conclusions 491References 49124 Plant and Microbe Association for Degradation of Xenobiotics Focusing Transgenic Plants 501Pooja Sharma, Palak Bakshi, Kanika Khanna, Jaspreet Kour, Dhriti Kapoor, Arun Dev Singh, Tamanna Bhardwaj, Rupinder Kaur, Ashutosh Sharma and Renu Bhardwaj24.1 Introduction 50124.2 Xenobiotics in the Environment 50224.3 Mechanism of Degradation of Xenobiotics 50224.4 Plant and Microbe Association for Degradation of Xenobiotics 50424.5 Transgenic Plants and Microbes for the Remediation of Xenobiotics 50624.6 Conclusion 509References 50925 Azolla Farming for Sustainable Environmental Remediation 517Abin Sebastian, Palengara Deepa and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad25.1 Introduction 51725.2 Diversity and Ecological Distribution 51925.3 Growth Conditions for Optimal Biomass Productivity 52125.4 Phytoremediation of Water Bodies 52325.5 Prospects in Sustainable Remediation and Bioeconomy 52525.6 Outlook 529References 52926 Mangrove Assisted Remediation and Ecosystem Services 535Janaina dos Santos Garcia, Sershen and Marcel Giovanni Costa Franca26.1 Mangrove Ecosystems 53526.2 Mangrove Plants 53526.3 Factors Responsible for Mangrove Degradation and Destruction 53626.4 Ecosystem Services of Mangroves 53726.4.1 Mangrove as a Sink of Pollutants 53826.4.1.1 Heavy Metals 53926.4.1.2 Heavy Metal Indices 54026.4.1.3 Association with Other Elements 54226.4.1.4 Organic Compounds 54426.4.1.5 Waste Water 54526.4.1.6 Microorganism Association and Isolation 54726.5 Methodologies to Use Mangroves for Remediation 55026.6 Final Comments 550References 552Part VI Nanoscience in Remediation 55727 Nanotechnology Assisted Remediation of Polluted Soils 559H.A.D.B. Amarasiri and Nadeesh M. Adassooriya27.1 Soil as Soil of Life 55927.2 Soil Pollution 56127.3 Impact of Soil Pollution 56127.4 Nanopollution 56227.5 Soil Remediation 56327.5.1 Conventional Soil Remediation Techniques and Methods 56327.5.1.1 Bioremediation 56327.5.1.2 Thermal Desorption 56427.5.1.3 Surfactant Enhanced Aquifer Remediation 56527.5.1.4 Pump and Treat 56527.5.1.5 In-Situ Oxidation 56627.5.2 Nanotechnology Based Soil Remediation Methods 56627.5.2.1 Nanomaterials 56627.5.2.2 Nano-Bioremediation 56727.5.2.3 Bioremediation with Biogenic Uraninite NPs 56727.5.2.4 Bioremediation with Engineered Polymeric NPs 56727.5.2.5 Bioremediation with Single Enzyme NPs 56827.5.2.6 Zeolites in Soil Remediation with Nanotechnology 56827.5.2.7 Soil Remediation with Iron Oxide NPs 56927.5.2.8 Soil Remediation with Nano Scale Zero Valent Iron (nZVI) 57027.5.2.9 Remediation with Other Metal-based NPs 57027.5.2.10 Remediation with Phosphate-based NPs 57127.5.2.11 Soil Remediation with Iron Sulfide NPs 57127.5.2.12 Carbon Nanotubes (CNT) in Soil Remediation 57127.5.2.13 Nanoclay in Soil Remediation 57227.6 Future Scope of Nanotechnology in Soil Remediation 573References 57328 Remediation of Wastewater Using Plant Based Nano Materials 583Wangjam Kabita Devi, Maibam Dhanaraj Meitei and Majeti Narasimha Vara Prasad28.1 Introduction 58328.2 Materials and Methods 58628.2.1 Materials 58628.2.2 Preparation of Extract 58728.2.3 Synthesis of AgNPs 58728.2.4 Characterization of Synthesized AgNPs 58728.2.5 Catalytic Activity of Synthesized AgNPs 58728.3 Results and Discussion 58828.3.1 Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDX) and X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Analysis 59028.3.2 Transmission Electron Microscopy 59128.3.3 Fourier Transform Infra-Red Spectroscopy 59128.3.4 Catalytic Property of AgNPs 59328.4 Conclusion 595Acknowledgments 596References 596Index 601