Dr. John Scheirs is a polymer technologist with ExcelPlas Geomembrane Testing Services. He specializes in geomembrane properties, polymer selection, failure analysis and testing and evaluation of geomembrane materials. He has extensive experience in durability testing of many polymeric geomembranes, in addition to routine mechanical analysis, forensic investigation and weld testing of geomembranes and polymeric liners. He has worked widely with HDPE, fPP and PVC membranes. Previously he worked with Exxon-Mobil on the stabilization and long-term durability of HDPE polymers.

• Series Preface xviiPreface xixAbout the Author xxiAcknowledgments xxiii1 Introduction to Polymeric Geomembranes 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Viscoelastic Behaviour 21.3 Polymer Structure 41.4 Molecular Weight 51.5 Molecular Weight Distribution 71.6 Crystallinity 81.7 Properties of Polyethylenes 141.8 Stress–Strain Behaviour of Polymers 161.9 Melting Points 20References 202 Geomembrane Manufacturing Methods 212.1 Blown Film (Round Die) 222.2 Flat Sheet Extrusion (Flat Die) 232.3 Coextrusion 252.4 Calendering 282.5 Spread Coating 292.6 Extrusion Coated Geomembranes 302.7 Pin-Hole Detection 302.8 Texturing 302.9 Additives for Geomembranes 40References 513 HDPE Geomembranes 533.1 Introduction 533.2 Structure–Property Relationships 593.3 Comparison of HDPE Geomembranes with Other Geomembranes 603.4 Durability and Survivability of HDPE 603.5 Selection of Quality HDPE Geomembranes 633.6 Common Failure Modes of HDPE Geomembranes 753.7 Multilayer HDPE Geomembranes 773.8 Fluorinated HDPE (F-HDPE) 82References 884 Linear Low-Density Polyethylene Geomembranes 914.1 Introduction 914.2 Attributes of LLDPE Geomembranes 924.3 Limitations of LLDPE Geomembranes 924.4 Mechanical Properties 924.5 LLDPE Geomembrane Resins 944.6 Speciality Flexible Polyethylene Geomembranes 954.7 Very Low-Density Polyethylene (VLDPE) Geomembranes 100References 1005 Flexible Polypropylene (fPP) Geomembranes 1015.1 Introduction 1015.2 Attributes of fPP Geomembranes 1025.3 Shortcomings of fPP Geomembranes 1025.4 Performance Propeties of fPP Geomembranes 1045.5 Applications 1125.6 fPP Field Failures 112References 1156 CSPE Geomembranes 1176.1 Introduction 1176.2 Grades of Hypalon„Jƒn1176.3 Attributes of CSPE Geomembranes 1186.4 Limitations of CSPE Geomembranes 1196.5 General Properties of CSPE Geomembranes 1206.6 Comparisons of CSPE with Other Geomembranes 1256.7 Applications of CSPE Geomembranes 1256.8 Chemical Resistance of CSPE Geomembranes 125References 1267 PVC Geomembranes 1277.1 Introduction 1277.2 Attributes of PVC Geomembranes 1307.3 Shortcomings of PVC 1327.4 Properties of PVC Geomembranes 1337.5 Failure Modes 1347.6 Formulation of PVC Geomembranes 136References 1388 EIA Geomembranes 1398.1 Introduction 1398.2 Attributes of EIA-R Geomembranes 1418.3 Limitations of EIA-R Geomembranes 1428.4 Performance Properties of EIA-R Geomembranes 1428.5 Comparison of EIA-R (XR-5„_) Versus CSPE-R (Hypalonᄢ) Geomembranes 1478.6 Application Areas for EIA-R Geomembranes 147References 1489 EPDM Geomembranes 1499.1 Introduction 1499.2 Attributes of EPDM Geomembranes 1499.3 Structure and Chemistry 1519.4 Mechanical Properties 1529.5 Advantages of EPDM over HDPE Geomembranes (Property Comparison) 1539.6 Comparison between EPDM and PVC Geomembranes 1589.7 Seaming EPDM Geomembranes  1609.8 Applications 1619.9 Service Life 161References 16210 Bituminous Geomembranes (BGMs) 16310.1 Introduction 16310.2 Prefabricated Bitumen Membranes 16310.3 Composition and Construction 16410.4 Longevity of Bituminous Geomembranes 16510.5 Spray-in-Place Bitumen Membranes16610.6 Design Life of Bituminous Geomembranes 167References 16711 Specialty Geomembranes and Liners 16911.1 EVA Liners/Geomembranes 16911.2 Butyl Rubber Liners 17011.3 Nitrile Rubber Geomembranes 17211.4 Chlorinated Polyethylene (CPE) 17511.5 Polyurethane (PU) Geomembranes 17611.6 Acrylic-Coated Geomembranes/Geotextile Composites 17811.7 PVDF Liners 18011.8 Chemical Vapour Barrier Membranes 182References 18712 Key Performance Properties of Geomembranes 18912.1 Specific Gravity (Density) 18912.2 Mass per Unit Area 19112.3 Thickness 19212.4 Melting Point 19612.5 Melt Flow Index 19812.6 Thermal Expansion 19912.7 Flexibility 20312.8 Conformability for Intimate Contact 20412.9 Ability to Resist/Accept Stress and Deformation 20412.10 Tensile Properties 20612.11 Puncture Resistance 21312.12 Tear Resistance 21712.13 Ply Adhesion of Reinforced Geomembranes 21912.14 Resistance to Stress Cracking 22012.15 Frictional Properties 22612.16 Low-Temperature Properties 23212.17 High-Temperature Capabilities 23612.18 Oxidative Resistance 23612.19 UV Resistance 24012.20 Permeability of Geomembranes 24112.21 Durability 24512.22 Application Specific Performance Properties  24912.23 Comparison of Performance Properties of Flexible Geomembranes 251References 25113 Testing of Geomembranes 25513.1 Material Property Testing 25513.2 Measuring Thickness 25613.3 Density 25813.4 Mass per Unit Area 25913.5 Tensile Testing Methods 25913.6 Tear Testing 26613.7 Ply Adhesion 26813.8 Puncture Resistance 26913.9 Impact Resistance 27513.10 Environmental Stress Cracking 27613.11 Dimensional Stability 28313.12 Friction Angles 28413.13 Melt Flow Index (MFI) 28413.14 Durability Testing 28613.15 Tests for Additives 29413.16 Carbonyl Index Measurements 30313.17 Chemical Resistance Testing 305References 30914 Chemical Resistance of Geomembranes 31314.1 Chemical Resistance Tables 31414.2 Factors Affecting Chemical Resistance 31514.3 Effects of Chemicals on Geomembranes 32214.4 Chemical Resistance Testing 32214.5 Geomembrane Chemical Resistance by Chemical Class 32914.6 Geomembrane Chemical Resistance by Polymer Type 33514.7 Environmental Stress Cracking 339References  34115 Failure Modes of Geomembranes 34315.1 Potential for Geomembrane Damage 34315.2 Failure of Installed Geomembranes 344References 36816 Application Areas for Geomembranes 37116.1 Landfill Liners 37116.1.1 Design Aspects 37316.2 Landfill Caps/Covers 37416.3 Mining Applications 37816.4 Floating Covers 38616.5 Tank Liners 394References 39917 Welding of Geomembranes 40117.1 Wedge Welding 40117.2 Hot Air Fusion Welding 41317.3 Extrusion Welding 41517.4 General Overview of Thermal Welding Methods 42417.5 Potential Thermal Welding Problems 42517.6 Defects that can Affect Weld Integrity 42917.7 Trial Welds and Field Welds 43717.8 Chemical Welding of Geomembranes 44017.9 General Welding Instructions for HDPE/LLDPE/fPP Geomembranes 44217.10 General Welding Instructions for PVC Geomembranes 445References 44718 Geomembrane Weld Testing Methods 44918.1 Introduction to Weld Testing 44918.2 Visual Inspection of Welds 45018.3 Nondestructive Seam Tests 45318.4 Destructive Weld Tests 46518.5 Forensic Weld Examination 48418.6 Leak Location Testing 485References 48919 Geomembrane Installation Factors 49119.1 Introduction 49119.2 Design Considerations 49319.3 Installation and Damage Considerations 496References 531Appendix 1 Glossary 533References 546Appendix 2 Geomembrane Test Methods 547American Society for Testing and Materials 547Geomembrane (GM) Related Test Methods and Standards from GRI 549Geomembrane Testing Methods Conversion Table ASTM and ISO 551Index 553

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