Fundamentals of Soil Behavior

James K. Mitchell, ScD, is University Distinguished Professor Emeritus in Civil Engineering at the Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University and Cahill Professor of Civil Engineering, Emeritus, University of California, Berkeley. He serves as a consultant on geotechnical problems and projects to many governmental and private organizations. He is an Honorary Member of the American Society of Civil Engineers and was elected to both the U.S. National Academy of Engineering and Academy of Sciences.Kenichi Soga, PhD, is Reader in Geomechanics. He has been on the faculty at the University of Cambridge, United Kingdom, since 1994. He is an editorial board member of Géotechnique, Journal of Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering, and Soils and Foundations. He also serves as a member of Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council Peer Review College and a core member of the Technical Committee on Geotechnics of Particulate Media of the International Society for Soil Mechanics and Geotechnical Engineering.

• Preface xiCHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION 11.1 Soil Behavior in Civil and Environmental Engineering 11.2 Scope and Organization 31.3 Getting Started 3CHAPTER 2 SOIL FORMATION 52.1 Introduction 52.2 The Earth's Crust 52.3 Geologic Cycle and Geological Time 62.4 Rock and Mineral Stability 72.5 Weathering 82.6 Origin of Clay Minerals and Clay Genesis 152.7 Soil Profiles and Their Development 162.8 Sediment Erosion, Transport, and Deposition 182.9 Postdepositional Changes in Sediments 252.10 Concluding Comments 32CHAPTER 3 SOIL MINERALOGY 353.1 Importance of Soil Mineralogy in Geotechnical Engineering 353.2 Atomic Structure 383.3 Interatomic Bonding 383.4 Secondary Bonds 393.5 Crystals and Their Properties 403.6 Crystal Notation 423.7 Factors Controlling Crystal Structures 443.8 Silicate Crystals 453.9 Surfaces 453.10 Gravel, Sand, and Silt Particles 483.11 Soil Minerals and Materials Formed by Biogenic and Geochemical Processes 493.12 Summary of Nonclay Mineral Characteristics 493.13 Structural Units of the Layer Silicates 493.14 Synthesis Pattern and Classification of the Clay Minerals 523.15 Intersheet and Interlayer Bonding in the Clay Minerals 553.16 The 11 Minerals 563.17 Smectite Minerals 593.18 Micalike Clay Minerals 623.19 Other Clay Minerals 643.20 Summary of Clay Mineral Characteristics 653.21 Determination of Soil Composition 653.22 X-ray Diffraction Analysis 703.23 Other Methods for Compositional Analysis 743.24 Quantitative Estimation of Soil Components 793.25 Concluding Comments 80CHAPTER 4 SOIL COMPOSITION AND ENGINEERING PROPERTIES 834.1 Introduction 834.2 Approaches to the Study of Composition and Property Interrelationships 854.3 Engineering Properties of Granular Soils 854.4 Dominating Influence of the Clay Phase 944.5 Atterberg Limits 954.6 Activity 974.7 Influences of Exchangeable Cations and pH 974.8 Engineering Properties of Clay Minerals 984.9 Effects of Organic Matter 1044.10 Concluding Comments 105CHAPTER 5 SOIL FABRIC AND ITS MEASUREMENT 1095.1 Introduction 1095.2 Definitions of Fabrics and Fabric Elements 1105.3 Single-Grain Fabrics 1125.4 Contact Force Characterization Using Photoelasticity 1195.5 Multigrain Fabrics 1215.6 Voids and Their Distribution 1225.7 Sample Acquisition and Preparation for Fabric Analysis 1235.8 Methods for Fabric Study 1275.9 Pore Size Distribution Analysis 1355.10 Indirect Methods for Fabric Characterization 1375.11 Concluding Comments 140CHAPTER 6 SOIL-WATER-CHEMICAL INTERACTIONS 1436.1 Introduction 1436.2 Nature of Ice and Water 1446.3 Influence of Dissolved Ions on Water 1456.4 Mechanisms of Soil-Water Interaction 1466.5 Structure and Properties of Adsorbed Water 1466.6 Clay-Water-Electrolyte System 1536.7 Ion Distributions in Clay-Water Systems 1536.8 Elements of Double-Layer Theory 1546.9 Influences of System Variables on the Double Layer 1576.10 Limitations of the Gouy-Chapman Diffuse Double Layer Model 1596.11 Energy and Force of Repulsion 1636.12 Long-Range Attraction 1646.13 Net Energy of Interaction 1646.14 Cation Exchange--General Considerations 1656.15 Theories for Ion Exchange 1676.16 Soil-Inorganic Chemical Interactions 1676.17 Clay-Organic Chemical Interactions 1686.18 Concluding Comments 169CHAPTER 7 EFFECTIVE, INTERGRANULAR, AND TOTAL STRESS 1737.1 Introduction 1737.2 Principle of Effective Stress 1737.3 Force Distributions in a Particulate System 1747.4 Interparticle Forces 1747.5 Intergranular Pressure 1787.6 Water Pressures and Potentials 1807.7 Water Pressure Equilibrium in Soil 1817.8 Measurement of Pore Pressures in Soils 1837.9 Effective and Intergranular Pressure 1847.10 Assessment of Terzaghi's Equation 1857.11 Water-Air Interactions in Soils 1887.12 Effective Stress in Unsaturated Soils 1907.13 Concluding Comments 193CHAPTER 8 SOIL DEPOSITS--THEIR FORMATION, STRUCTURE, GEOTECHNICAL PROPERTIES, AND STABILITY 1958.1 Introduction 1958.2 Structure Development 1958.3 Residual Soils 2008.4 Surficial Residual Soils and Taxonomy 2058.5 Terrestrial Deposits 2068.6 Mixed Continental and Marine Deposits 2098.7 Marine Deposits 2098.8 Chemical and Biological Deposits 2128.9 Fabric, Structure, and Property Relationships: General Considerations 2138.10 Soil Fabric and Property Anisotropy 2178.11 Sand Fabric and Liquefaction 2238.12 Sensitivity and Its Causes 2268.13 Property Interrelationships in Sensitive Clays 2358.14 Dispersive Clays 2398.15 Slaking 2438.16 Collapsing Soils and Swelling Soils 2438.17 Hard Soils and Soft Rocks 2458.18 Concluding Comments 245CHAPTER 9 CONDUCTION PHENOMENA 2519.1 Introduction 2519.2 Flow Laws and Interrelationships 2519.3 Hydraulic Conductivity 2529.4 Flows Through Unsaturated Soils 2629.5 Thermal Conductivity 2659.6 Electrical Conductivity 2679.7 Diffusion 2729.8 Typical Ranges of Flow Parameters 2749.9 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Salts Through Soil-Coupled Flows 2749.10 Quantification of Coupled Flows 2779.11 Simultaneous Flows of Water, Current, and Chemicals 2799.12 Electrokinetic Phenomena 2829.13 Transport Coefficients and the Importance of Coupled Flows 2849.14 Compatibility--Effects of Chemical Flows on Properties 2889.15 Electroosmosis 2919.16 Electroosmosis Efficiency 2949.17 Consolidation by Electroosmosis 2989.18 Electrochemical Effects 3039.19 Electrokinetic Remediation 3059.20 Self-Potentials 3059.21 Thermally Driven Moisture Flows 3079.22 Ground Freezing 3109.23 Concluding Comments 319CHAPTER 10 VOLUME CHANGE BEHAVIOR 32510.1 Introduction 32510.2 General Volume Change Behavior of Soils 32510.3 Preconsolidation Pressure 32710.4 Factors Controlling Resistance to Volume Change 33010.5 Physical Interactions in Volume Change 33110.6 Fabric, Structure, and Volume Change 33510.7 Osmotic Pressure and Water Adsorption Influences on Compression and Swelling 33910.8 Influences of Mineralogical Detail in Soil Expansion 34510.9 Consolidation 34810.10 Secondary Compression 35310.11 In Situ Horizontal Stress (K0) 35510.12 Temperature-Volume Relationships 35910.13 Concluding Comments 365CHAPTER 11 STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION BEHAVIOR 36911.1 Introduction 36911.2 General Characteristics of Strength and Deformation 37011.3 Fabric, Structure, and Strength 37911.4 Friction Between Solid Surfaces 38311.5 Frictional Behavior of Minerals 38911.6 Physical Interactions Among Particles 39311.7 Critical State: A Useful Reference Condition 40011.8 Strength Parameters for Sands 40411.9 Strength Parameters for Clays 41111.10 Behavior After Peak and Strain Localization 41511.11 Residual State and Residual Strength 41711.12 Intermediate Stress Effects and Anisotropy 42211.13 Resistance to Cyclic Loading and Liquefaction 42511.14 Strength of Mixed Soils 43211.15 Cohesion 43611.16 Fracturing of Soils 43811.17 Deformation Characteristics 44411.18 Linear Elastic Stiffness 44711.19 Transition from Elastic to Plastic States 45211.20 Plastic Deformation 45611.21 Temperature Effects 46011.22 Concluding Comments 462CHAPTER 12 TIME EFFECTS ON STRENGTH AND DEFORMATION 46512.1 Introduction 46512.2 General Characteristics 46612.3 Time-Dependent Deformation-Structure Interaction 47012.4 Soil Deformation as a Rate Process 47812.5 Bonding, Effective Stresses, and Strength 48112.6 Shearing Resistance as a Rate Process 48812.7 Creep and Stress Relaxation 48912.8 Rate Effects on Stress-Strain Relationships 49712.9 Modeling of Stress-Strain-Time Behavior 50312.10 Creep Rupture 50812.11 Sand Aging Effects and Their Significance 51112.12 Mechanical Processes of Aging 51612.13 Chemical Processes of Aging 51712.14 Concluding Comments 520Questions and Problems 520List of Symbols 523References 531Index 559