C. Clifford Boyd Jr, PhD, RPA, is currently a Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Virginia, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.Donna C. Boyd, PhD, D-ABFA, is Eminent Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, Professor of Biomedical Science at Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.

• About the Editors xvNotes on contributors xviiForeword xxiiiSeries preface xxvAcknowledgments xxvii1 The theoretical and scientific foundations of forensic anthropology 1C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd1.1 Introduction 11.2 A selective history of theory in forensic anthropology 21.3 A modern perspective on forensic anthropology theory 51.3.1 Three forms of logical reasoning 81.3.2 Theory building in forensic anthropology: Linking logic and theory 101.4 Forensic anthropology theory and modern practice 121.5 Final comments 15References 15Part 1 Bias and objectivity in forensic anthropology theory and practice 192 Subjective with a capital S? Issues of objectivity in forensic anthropology 21Allysha Powanda Winburn2.1 Introduction 212.2 Objectivity subjectivity and forensic anthropological theory 222.3 Subjectivity in science 242.3.1 Subjectivity in forensic anthropology 242.3.2 Effects of bias on forensic anthropology 252.3.3 Subjective science is not bad science 262.4 Mitigated objectivity: A path forward… 272.4.1 Constraining subjectivity and bias 282.4.2 The continuing process of constraint 332.5 Conclusion 34References 343 Navigating cognitive bias in forensic anthropology 39Michael W. Warren Amanda N. Friend and Michala K. Stock3.1 Introduction 393.2 Types of cognitive bias 403.3 Research versus applied science 413.4 Recommended solutions to mitigate confirmation bias 433.5 Challenges unique to forensic anthropology 443.5.1 Anthropologists work in a variety of professional contexts 443.5.2 The uniqueness of the forensic anthropology testing sample 453.5.3 Multiple tests to reach a single conclusion 453.6 An example of how bias affects procedures 463.7 Workable solutions 493.8 Summary 49References 504 Theoretically interesting: Different perspectives of the application of theory to forensic anthropology practice and research 53Soren Blau4.1 Introduction 534.2 Practising in context 564.3 Ethical considerations for the development of theory 584.4 Can theories be applied universally? 594.5 Conclusion 59Acknowledgements 61References 61Part 2 The theory and science behind biological profile and personal identification 655 From Blumenbach to Howells: The slow painful emergence of theory through forensic race estimation 67Stephen Ousley Richard L. Jantz and Joseph T. Hefner5.1 Introduction 675.2 Race as a concept and theory 685.2.1 Evolution rather than race explains human biological variation 705.2.2 Human variation is continuous 725.2.3 Human biological variation involves many traits that typically vary independently 735.2.4 Genetic variation within so‐called races is much greater than the variation among them 745.2.5 There is no way to consistently classify human beings by race 755.3 Anthropology and race 795.4 Forensic anthropology and race 855.5 Race and the future 90Acknowledgments 92References 926 The application of theory in skeletal age estimation 99Natalie R. Langley and Beatrix Dudzik6.1 Introduction 996.2 Skeletal age 1016.3 Historical context 1016.4 Forensic anthropology and evolutionary biology 1026.5 Potential solutions to the problem of age estimation 1056.6 Final comments 107References 1097 Theory and histological methods 113Christian M. Crowder Deborrah C. Pinto Janna M. Andronowski and Victoria M. Dominguez7.1 Introduction 1137.2 Foundational theory in bone biology 1147.3 Interpretive theory in bone biology 1157.3.1 Form and function 1157.3.2 The mechanostat and Utah paradigm 1167.3.3 Exploring the effectors of the mechanostat 1177.4 Methodological theory in bone biology 1197.4.1 Histological age estimation 1207.4.2 Determining human versus nonhuman bone 1217.5 Conclusions 122References 1238 Forensic applications of isotope landscapes (“isoscapes”): A tool for predicting region‐of‐origin in forensic anthropology cases 127Lesley A. Chesson Brett J. Tipple James R. Ehleringer Todd Park and Eric J. Bartelink8.1 Introduction 1278.2 What are isotopes? 1288.3 Why do isotope compositions of human tissues differ? 1298.3.1 Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes 1308.3.2 Strontium isotopes 1308.3.3 Carbon nitrogen and sulfur isotopes 1328.4 How do we interpret isotope data collected for forensic human identification? 1338.4.1 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and hair keratin 1348.4.2 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and skeletal bioapatite 1378.4.3 Strontium isotopes of local bedrock and skeletal remains 1388.5 Examples of the application of isotope analysis to unidentified remains 1398.5.1 Jane Doe from Salt Lake County 1398.5.2 Mandible from Siskiyou County 1418.6 What are the future applications of isotope analysis? 144Acknowledgments 144References 145Part 3 Scientific foundation for interpretations of antemortem perimortem and postmortem processes 1499 The anatomical basis for fracture repair: Recognition of the healing continuum and its forensic applications to investigations of pediatric and elderly abuse 151Donna C. Boyd9.1 Introduction: Diagnosing pediatric and elderly non‐accidental injury 1519.2 Theoretical basis for fracture healing and TSI estimation 1539.3 Anatomical basis for fracture healing 1549.3.1 Bone growth and development 1559.3.2 Fracture healing 1579.4 Factors affecting the rate of bone healing 1629.4.1 The biological profile (age sex ancestry) 1629.4.2 Type location cause severity and number of injuries 1639.4.3 Injury treatment and local biomechanical factors 1649.4.4 Systemic and other factors 1659.5 Fracture healing stages and dating systems 1669.6 A new model for fracture repair 1749.7 Expanding and refining TSI estimation through the Antemortem Fracture Archive 1819.8 Theory and the future of TSI estimation 184References 184Appendix A 195Major fracture repair stages and TSI estimations 19510 Theoretical foundation of child abuse 201Jennifer C. Love and Miriam E. Soto Martinez10.1 Introduction 20110.2 Case study 20110.3 Anthropologists and child abuse 20210.4 Foundational theory 20310.5 Interpretive theory 20410.5.1 Bone biomechanics 20510.5.2 Motor skill development 20710.6 Methodological theory 20710.7 Conclusion 209References 20911 Bone trauma analysis in a forensic setting: Theoretical basis and a practical approach for evaluation 213Hugh E. Berryman John F. Berryman and Tiffany B. Saul11.1 Introduction 21311.2 Theory 21411.2.1 Foundational theory 21511.2.2 Interpretive theory 21611.2.3 Methodological theory 21711.3 Fundamental principles in bone fracture interpretation 21811.4 A practical approach to bone trauma evaluation and hypothesis building 22611.5 Conclusion 232References 23212 Thinking outside the box: Theory and innovation in sharp trauma analysis 235John A. Williams and Ronald W. Davis12.1 Introduction 23512.2 Transfer of evidence 23512.3 Theory connections 23612.4 The human skeleton as transfer evidence 23712.5 A primer on saws and dismemberment 23812.6 Geographic information system 24012.7 Applications of GIS in forensic anthropology and human osteology 24112.8 GIS: innovation in cut mark striation interpretation 24212.9 Locard and the twenty‐first century: It’s all a matter of scale 247References 24813 The forensic anthropologist as broker for cross‐disciplinary taphonomic research related to estimating the postmortem interval in medicolegal death investigations 251Daniel J. Wescott13.1 Introduction 25113.2 Taphonomy and taphonomic theory 25213.3 Forensic taphonomy 25413.4 Taphonomy and the estimation of time since death 25513.5 The necrobiome 25613.6 Cross‐disciplinary research 25713.6.1 Need for cross‐disciplinary research in PMI estimation 25713.6.2 Cross‐disciplinary approaches 25813.7 Overcoming barriers to cross‐disciplinary research 26213.8 Forensic anthropologists as brokers for unified theories in forensic taphonomy 26413.8.1 Forensic anthropologists are already major players 26413.8.2 Anthropologists have a long history of conducting taphonomic research 26413.8.3 Anthropology is traditionally a holistic field 26513.8.4 Forensic anthropology has its roots in academic research 26513.9 Conclusions 265Acknowledgments 266References 266Part 4 Interdisciplinary influences legal ramifications and future directions 27114 Archaeological inference and its application to forensic anthropology 273C. Clifford Boyd Jr and William W. Baden14.1 Introduction 27314.2 Agency and nonlinear systems theories 27414.3 Nonlinear modeling of the decomposition process 27714.4 Discussion 284References 29215 Arrows of influence: The give and take of theory between forensic anthropology archaeology and geophysics 297John F. Schweikart and Cheryl A. Johnston15.1 Introduction 29715.2 Influences of archaeology on forensic anthropology 29915.3 Influences of geophysics on forensic anthropology 30115.4 “Backflow” to other disciplines: Site formation processes in archaeology 30215.5 Backflow: Interpretation/understanding of geophysical signatures 30315.6 Conclusion 305References 30516 Forensic anthropology scientific evidence and the law: Why theory matters 307Donna C. Boyd and C. Clifford Boyd Jr16.1 Introduction: Theory in practice 30716.1.1 Commonwealth of Virginia V Lockett: Why theory matters 30716.2 Science and the law: The disconnect 30916.3 Science and the law: Commonalities 31016.3.1 Legal and scientific dialogue 31016.3.2 Abductive reasoning 31116.3.3 Probabilistic evaluation of the strength of evidence 31216.4 Forensic anthropologists as expert witnesses 31516.5 Admissibility of forensic anthropology evidence in the post‐Daubert world 31616.6 The legal application of forensic anthropology: Why theory matters 31816.7 Final comments 319Acknowledgments 320References 32017 Epilogue: Theory and science in forensic anthropology: Avenues for further research and development 325C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd17.1 The science of forensic anthropology 32517.2 Looking forward 327References 328Index 329

C. Clifford Boyd Jr, PhD, RPA, is currently a Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Virginia, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.Donna C. Boyd, PhD, D-ABFA, is Eminent Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, Professor of Biomedical Science at Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.

• About the Editors xvNotes on contributors xviiForeword xxiiiSeries preface xxvAcknowledgments xxvii1 The theoretical and scientific foundations of forensic anthropology 1C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd1.1 Introduction 11.2 A selective history of theory in forensic anthropology 21.3 A modern perspective on forensic anthropology theory 51.3.1 Three forms of logical reasoning 81.3.2 Theory building in forensic anthropology: Linking logic and theory 101.4 Forensic anthropology theory and modern practice 121.5 Final comments 15References 15Part 1 Bias and objectivity in forensic anthropology theory and practice 192 Subjective with a capital S? Issues of objectivity in forensic anthropology 21Allysha Powanda Winburn2.1 Introduction 212.2 Objectivity subjectivity and forensic anthropological theory 222.3 Subjectivity in science 242.3.1 Subjectivity in forensic anthropology 242.3.2 Effects of bias on forensic anthropology 252.3.3 Subjective science is not bad science 262.4 Mitigated objectivity: A path forward… 272.4.1 Constraining subjectivity and bias 282.4.2 The continuing process of constraint 332.5 Conclusion 34References 343 Navigating cognitive bias in forensic anthropology 39Michael W. Warren Amanda N. Friend and Michala K. Stock3.1 Introduction 393.2 Types of cognitive bias 403.3 Research versus applied science 413.4 Recommended solutions to mitigate confirmation bias 433.5 Challenges unique to forensic anthropology 443.5.1 Anthropologists work in a variety of professional contexts 443.5.2 The uniqueness of the forensic anthropology testing sample 453.5.3 Multiple tests to reach a single conclusion 453.6 An example of how bias affects procedures 463.7 Workable solutions 493.8 Summary 49References 504 Theoretically interesting: Different perspectives of the application of theory to forensic anthropology practice and research 53Soren Blau4.1 Introduction 534.2 Practising in context 564.3 Ethical considerations for the development of theory 584.4 Can theories be applied universally? 594.5 Conclusion 59Acknowledgements 61References 61Part 2 The theory and science behind biological profile and personal identification 655 From Blumenbach to Howells: The slow painful emergence of theory through forensic race estimation 67Stephen Ousley Richard L. Jantz and Joseph T. Hefner5.1 Introduction 675.2 Race as a concept and theory 685.2.1 Evolution rather than race explains human biological variation 705.2.2 Human variation is continuous 725.2.3 Human biological variation involves many traits that typically vary independently 735.2.4 Genetic variation within so‐called races is much greater than the variation among them 745.2.5 There is no way to consistently classify human beings by race 755.3 Anthropology and race 795.4 Forensic anthropology and race 855.5 Race and the future 90Acknowledgments 92References 926 The application of theory in skeletal age estimation 99Natalie R. Langley and Beatrix Dudzik6.1 Introduction 996.2 Skeletal age 1016.3 Historical context 1016.4 Forensic anthropology and evolutionary biology 1026.5 Potential solutions to the problem of age estimation 1056.6 Final comments 107References 1097 Theory and histological methods 113Christian M. Crowder Deborrah C. Pinto Janna M. Andronowski and Victoria M. Dominguez7.1 Introduction 1137.2 Foundational theory in bone biology 1147.3 Interpretive theory in bone biology 1157.3.1 Form and function 1157.3.2 The mechanostat and Utah paradigm 1167.3.3 Exploring the effectors of the mechanostat 1177.4 Methodological theory in bone biology 1197.4.1 Histological age estimation 1207.4.2 Determining human versus nonhuman bone 1217.5 Conclusions 122References 1238 Forensic applications of isotope landscapes (“isoscapes”): A tool for predicting region‐of‐origin in forensic anthropology cases 127Lesley A. Chesson Brett J. Tipple James R. Ehleringer Todd Park and Eric J. Bartelink8.1 Introduction 1278.2 What are isotopes? 1288.3 Why do isotope compositions of human tissues differ? 1298.3.1 Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes 1308.3.2 Strontium isotopes 1308.3.3 Carbon nitrogen and sulfur isotopes 1328.4 How do we interpret isotope data collected for forensic human identification? 1338.4.1 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and hair keratin 1348.4.2 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and skeletal bioapatite 1378.4.3 Strontium isotopes of local bedrock and skeletal remains 1388.5 Examples of the application of isotope analysis to unidentified remains 1398.5.1 Jane Doe from Salt Lake County 1398.5.2 Mandible from Siskiyou County 1418.6 What are the future applications of isotope analysis? 144Acknowledgments 144References 145Part 3 Scientific foundation for interpretations of antemortem perimortem and postmortem processes 1499 The anatomical basis for fracture repair: Recognition of the healing continuum and its forensic applications to investigations of pediatric and elderly abuse 151Donna C. Boyd9.1 Introduction: Diagnosing pediatric and elderly non‐accidental injury 1519.2 Theoretical basis for fracture healing and TSI estimation 1539.3 Anatomical basis for fracture healing 1549.3.1 Bone growth and development 1559.3.2 Fracture healing 1579.4 Factors affecting the rate of bone healing 1629.4.1 The biological profile (age sex ancestry) 1629.4.2 Type location cause severity and number of injuries 1639.4.3 Injury treatment and local biomechanical factors 1649.4.4 Systemic and other factors 1659.5 Fracture healing stages and dating systems 1669.6 A new model for fracture repair 1749.7 Expanding and refining TSI estimation through the Antemortem Fracture Archive 1819.8 Theory and the future of TSI estimation 184References 184Appendix A 195Major fracture repair stages and TSI estimations 19510 Theoretical foundation of child abuse 201Jennifer C. Love and Miriam E. Soto Martinez10.1 Introduction 20110.2 Case study 20110.3 Anthropologists and child abuse 20210.4 Foundational theory 20310.5 Interpretive theory 20410.5.1 Bone biomechanics 20510.5.2 Motor skill development 20710.6 Methodological theory 20710.7 Conclusion 209References 20911 Bone trauma analysis in a forensic setting: Theoretical basis and a practical approach for evaluation 213Hugh E. Berryman John F. Berryman and Tiffany B. Saul11.1 Introduction 21311.2 Theory 21411.2.1 Foundational theory 21511.2.2 Interpretive theory 21611.2.3 Methodological theory 21711.3 Fundamental principles in bone fracture interpretation 21811.4 A practical approach to bone trauma evaluation and hypothesis building 22611.5 Conclusion 232References 23212 Thinking outside the box: Theory and innovation in sharp trauma analysis 235John A. Williams and Ronald W. Davis12.1 Introduction 23512.2 Transfer of evidence 23512.3 Theory connections 23612.4 The human skeleton as transfer evidence 23712.5 A primer on saws and dismemberment 23812.6 Geographic information system 24012.7 Applications of GIS in forensic anthropology and human osteology 24112.8 GIS: innovation in cut mark striation interpretation 24212.9 Locard and the twenty‐first century: It’s all a matter of scale 247References 24813 The forensic anthropologist as broker for cross‐disciplinary taphonomic research related to estimating the postmortem interval in medicolegal death investigations 251Daniel J. Wescott13.1 Introduction 25113.2 Taphonomy and taphonomic theory 25213.3 Forensic taphonomy 25413.4 Taphonomy and the estimation of time since death 25513.5 The necrobiome 25613.6 Cross‐disciplinary research 25713.6.1 Need for cross‐disciplinary research in PMI estimation 25713.6.2 Cross‐disciplinary approaches 25813.7 Overcoming barriers to cross‐disciplinary research 26213.8 Forensic anthropologists as brokers for unified theories in forensic taphonomy 26413.8.1 Forensic anthropologists are already major players 26413.8.2 Anthropologists have a long history of conducting taphonomic research 26413.8.3 Anthropology is traditionally a holistic field 26513.8.4 Forensic anthropology has its roots in academic research 26513.9 Conclusions 265Acknowledgments 266References 266Part 4 Interdisciplinary influences legal ramifications and future directions 27114 Archaeological inference and its application to forensic anthropology 273C. Clifford Boyd Jr and William W. Baden14.1 Introduction 27314.2 Agency and nonlinear systems theories 27414.3 Nonlinear modeling of the decomposition process 27714.4 Discussion 284References 29215 Arrows of influence: The give and take of theory between forensic anthropology archaeology and geophysics 297John F. Schweikart and Cheryl A. Johnston15.1 Introduction 29715.2 Influences of archaeology on forensic anthropology 29915.3 Influences of geophysics on forensic anthropology 30115.4 “Backflow” to other disciplines: Site formation processes in archaeology 30215.5 Backflow: Interpretation/understanding of geophysical signatures 30315.6 Conclusion 305References 30516 Forensic anthropology scientific evidence and the law: Why theory matters 307Donna C. Boyd and C. Clifford Boyd Jr16.1 Introduction: Theory in practice 30716.1.1 Commonwealth of Virginia V Lockett: Why theory matters 30716.2 Science and the law: The disconnect 30916.3 Science and the law: Commonalities 31016.3.1 Legal and scientific dialogue 31016.3.2 Abductive reasoning 31116.3.3 Probabilistic evaluation of the strength of evidence 31216.4 Forensic anthropologists as expert witnesses 31516.5 Admissibility of forensic anthropology evidence in the post‐Daubert world 31616.6 The legal application of forensic anthropology: Why theory matters 31816.7 Final comments 319Acknowledgments 320References 32017 Epilogue: Theory and science in forensic anthropology: Avenues for further research and development 325C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd17.1 The science of forensic anthropology 32517.2 Looking forward 327References 328Index 329

C. Clifford Boyd Jr, PhD, RPA, is currently a Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Virginia, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.Donna C. Boyd, PhD, D-ABFA, is Eminent Professor of Anthropological Sciences at Radford University, Co-Director of the RU Forensic Science Institute, Professor of Biomedical Science at Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine, and Consultant for the Virginia Office of the Chief Medical Examiner.

• About the Editors xvNotes on contributors xviiForeword xxiiiSeries preface xxvAcknowledgments xxvii1 The theoretical and scientific foundations of forensic anthropology 1C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd1.1 Introduction 11.2 A selective history of theory in forensic anthropology 21.3 A modern perspective on forensic anthropology theory 51.3.1 Three forms of logical reasoning 81.3.2 Theory building in forensic anthropology: Linking logic and theory 101.4 Forensic anthropology theory and modern practice 121.5 Final comments 15References 15Part 1 Bias and objectivity in forensic anthropology theory and practice 192 Subjective with a capital S? Issues of objectivity in forensic anthropology 21Allysha Powanda Winburn2.1 Introduction 212.2 Objectivity subjectivity and forensic anthropological theory 222.3 Subjectivity in science 242.3.1 Subjectivity in forensic anthropology 242.3.2 Effects of bias on forensic anthropology 252.3.3 Subjective science is not bad science 262.4 Mitigated objectivity: A path forward… 272.4.1 Constraining subjectivity and bias 282.4.2 The continuing process of constraint 332.5 Conclusion 34References 343 Navigating cognitive bias in forensic anthropology 39Michael W. Warren Amanda N. Friend and Michala K. Stock3.1 Introduction 393.2 Types of cognitive bias 403.3 Research versus applied science 413.4 Recommended solutions to mitigate confirmation bias 433.5 Challenges unique to forensic anthropology 443.5.1 Anthropologists work in a variety of professional contexts 443.5.2 The uniqueness of the forensic anthropology testing sample 453.5.3 Multiple tests to reach a single conclusion 453.6 An example of how bias affects procedures 463.7 Workable solutions 493.8 Summary 49References 504 Theoretically interesting: Different perspectives of the application of theory to forensic anthropology practice and research 53Soren Blau4.1 Introduction 534.2 Practising in context 564.3 Ethical considerations for the development of theory 584.4 Can theories be applied universally? 594.5 Conclusion 59Acknowledgements 61References 61Part 2 The theory and science behind biological profile and personal identification 655 From Blumenbach to Howells: The slow painful emergence of theory through forensic race estimation 67Stephen Ousley Richard L. Jantz and Joseph T. Hefner5.1 Introduction 675.2 Race as a concept and theory 685.2.1 Evolution rather than race explains human biological variation 705.2.2 Human variation is continuous 725.2.3 Human biological variation involves many traits that typically vary independently 735.2.4 Genetic variation within so‐called races is much greater than the variation among them 745.2.5 There is no way to consistently classify human beings by race 755.3 Anthropology and race 795.4 Forensic anthropology and race 855.5 Race and the future 90Acknowledgments 92References 926 The application of theory in skeletal age estimation 99Natalie R. Langley and Beatrix Dudzik6.1 Introduction 996.2 Skeletal age 1016.3 Historical context 1016.4 Forensic anthropology and evolutionary biology 1026.5 Potential solutions to the problem of age estimation 1056.6 Final comments 107References 1097 Theory and histological methods 113Christian M. Crowder Deborrah C. Pinto Janna M. Andronowski and Victoria M. Dominguez7.1 Introduction 1137.2 Foundational theory in bone biology 1147.3 Interpretive theory in bone biology 1157.3.1 Form and function 1157.3.2 The mechanostat and Utah paradigm 1167.3.3 Exploring the effectors of the mechanostat 1177.4 Methodological theory in bone biology 1197.4.1 Histological age estimation 1207.4.2 Determining human versus nonhuman bone 1217.5 Conclusions 122References 1238 Forensic applications of isotope landscapes (“isoscapes”): A tool for predicting region‐of‐origin in forensic anthropology cases 127Lesley A. Chesson Brett J. Tipple James R. Ehleringer Todd Park and Eric J. Bartelink8.1 Introduction 1278.2 What are isotopes? 1288.3 Why do isotope compositions of human tissues differ? 1298.3.1 Hydrogen and oxygen isotopes 1308.3.2 Strontium isotopes 1308.3.3 Carbon nitrogen and sulfur isotopes 1328.4 How do we interpret isotope data collected for forensic human identification? 1338.4.1 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and hair keratin 1348.4.2 Oxygen isotopes in drinking water and skeletal bioapatite 1378.4.3 Strontium isotopes of local bedrock and skeletal remains 1388.5 Examples of the application of isotope analysis to unidentified remains 1398.5.1 Jane Doe from Salt Lake County 1398.5.2 Mandible from Siskiyou County 1418.6 What are the future applications of isotope analysis? 144Acknowledgments 144References 145Part 3 Scientific foundation for interpretations of antemortem perimortem and postmortem processes 1499 The anatomical basis for fracture repair: Recognition of the healing continuum and its forensic applications to investigations of pediatric and elderly abuse 151Donna C. Boyd9.1 Introduction: Diagnosing pediatric and elderly non‐accidental injury 1519.2 Theoretical basis for fracture healing and TSI estimation 1539.3 Anatomical basis for fracture healing 1549.3.1 Bone growth and development 1559.3.2 Fracture healing 1579.4 Factors affecting the rate of bone healing 1629.4.1 The biological profile (age sex ancestry) 1629.4.2 Type location cause severity and number of injuries 1639.4.3 Injury treatment and local biomechanical factors 1649.4.4 Systemic and other factors 1659.5 Fracture healing stages and dating systems 1669.6 A new model for fracture repair 1749.7 Expanding and refining TSI estimation through the Antemortem Fracture Archive 1819.8 Theory and the future of TSI estimation 184References 184Appendix A 195Major fracture repair stages and TSI estimations 19510 Theoretical foundation of child abuse 201Jennifer C. Love and Miriam E. Soto Martinez10.1 Introduction 20110.2 Case study 20110.3 Anthropologists and child abuse 20210.4 Foundational theory 20310.5 Interpretive theory 20410.5.1 Bone biomechanics 20510.5.2 Motor skill development 20710.6 Methodological theory 20710.7 Conclusion 209References 20911 Bone trauma analysis in a forensic setting: Theoretical basis and a practical approach for evaluation 213Hugh E. Berryman John F. Berryman and Tiffany B. Saul11.1 Introduction 21311.2 Theory 21411.2.1 Foundational theory 21511.2.2 Interpretive theory 21611.2.3 Methodological theory 21711.3 Fundamental principles in bone fracture interpretation 21811.4 A practical approach to bone trauma evaluation and hypothesis building 22611.5 Conclusion 232References 23212 Thinking outside the box: Theory and innovation in sharp trauma analysis 235John A. Williams and Ronald W. Davis12.1 Introduction 23512.2 Transfer of evidence 23512.3 Theory connections 23612.4 The human skeleton as transfer evidence 23712.5 A primer on saws and dismemberment 23812.6 Geographic information system 24012.7 Applications of GIS in forensic anthropology and human osteology 24112.8 GIS: innovation in cut mark striation interpretation 24212.9 Locard and the twenty‐first century: It’s all a matter of scale 247References 24813 The forensic anthropologist as broker for cross‐disciplinary taphonomic research related to estimating the postmortem interval in medicolegal death investigations 251Daniel J. Wescott13.1 Introduction 25113.2 Taphonomy and taphonomic theory 25213.3 Forensic taphonomy 25413.4 Taphonomy and the estimation of time since death 25513.5 The necrobiome 25613.6 Cross‐disciplinary research 25713.6.1 Need for cross‐disciplinary research in PMI estimation 25713.6.2 Cross‐disciplinary approaches 25813.7 Overcoming barriers to cross‐disciplinary research 26213.8 Forensic anthropologists as brokers for unified theories in forensic taphonomy 26413.8.1 Forensic anthropologists are already major players 26413.8.2 Anthropologists have a long history of conducting taphonomic research 26413.8.3 Anthropology is traditionally a holistic field 26513.8.4 Forensic anthropology has its roots in academic research 26513.9 Conclusions 265Acknowledgments 266References 266Part 4 Interdisciplinary influences legal ramifications and future directions 27114 Archaeological inference and its application to forensic anthropology 273C. Clifford Boyd Jr and William W. Baden14.1 Introduction 27314.2 Agency and nonlinear systems theories 27414.3 Nonlinear modeling of the decomposition process 27714.4 Discussion 284References 29215 Arrows of influence: The give and take of theory between forensic anthropology archaeology and geophysics 297John F. Schweikart and Cheryl A. Johnston15.1 Introduction 29715.2 Influences of archaeology on forensic anthropology 29915.3 Influences of geophysics on forensic anthropology 30115.4 “Backflow” to other disciplines: Site formation processes in archaeology 30215.5 Backflow: Interpretation/understanding of geophysical signatures 30315.6 Conclusion 305References 30516 Forensic anthropology scientific evidence and the law: Why theory matters 307Donna C. Boyd and C. Clifford Boyd Jr16.1 Introduction: Theory in practice 30716.1.1 Commonwealth of Virginia V Lockett: Why theory matters 30716.2 Science and the law: The disconnect 30916.3 Science and the law: Commonalities 31016.3.1 Legal and scientific dialogue 31016.3.2 Abductive reasoning 31116.3.3 Probabilistic evaluation of the strength of evidence 31216.4 Forensic anthropologists as expert witnesses 31516.5 Admissibility of forensic anthropology evidence in the post‐Daubert world 31616.6 The legal application of forensic anthropology: Why theory matters 31816.7 Final comments 319Acknowledgments 320References 32017 Epilogue: Theory and science in forensic anthropology: Avenues for further research and development 325C. Clifford Boyd Jr and Donna C. Boyd17.1 The science of forensic anthropology 32517.2 Looking forward 327References 328Index 329