Food Wastes and By-products

DR. ROCIO CAMPOS-VEGA is Researcher-Professor, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico, and is part of Mexico's National Research System. DR. B. DAVE OOMAH is a retired research scientist formerly responsible for crop utilization in the National Bioproducts and Bioprocessing Program at Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada. DR. HAYDÉ AZENETH VERGARA-CASTAÑEDA is Researcher-Professor, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, Mexico, and is part of Mexico's National Research System.

• List of Contributors xv1 Cereal/Grain By-products 1Norma Julieta Salazar-López, Maribel Ovando-Martínez, and J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila1.1 Introduction 11.2 Global Production of Cereals and Crop Residues 21.3 Cereal Processing and Production of By-products 51.3.1 Cereals Morphology and Composition 51.3.2 Cereal Grains Processing 61.3.2.1 Milling 61.3.2.2 Dry Milling 61.3.2.3 Wet Milling 61.3.2.4 Pearling 71.3.2.5 Malting 81.3.2.6 Fermentation 81.3.2.7 Others 91.4 Cereal Grains By-products 91.5 Nutraceutical from Cereal/Grain By-products 111.5.1 Classification of Nutraceutical Ingredients in Cereal By-products 121.5.1.1 Polyphenols 121.5.1.2 Carotenoids 161.5.1.3 Dietary Fiber 161.5.1.4 Prebiotics 171.5.1.5 Lipids and Fatty Acids 171.5.1.6 Proteins 181.5.1.7 Starch 181.6 Health Potential of Cereal/Grain By-products 181.6.1 Non-Communicable Diseases 181.6.1.1 Dyslipidemia and Cardiovascular Effect 181.6.1.2 Diabetes 221.6.1.3 Anticancer Effect 231.7 Current and Future Perspectives 251.8 Concluding Remarks 26References 262 Enrichment and Utilization of Thin Stillage By‑products 35Timothy J. Tse and Martin J. T. Reaney2.1 Introduction 352.2 Endemic Bacteria in Wheat‐Based Thin Stillage 372.3 Protein and Organic Solute Concentration in Thin Stillage 392.4 Bacteriocins 432.5 Separation and Purification of Bacteriocins 462.6 Conclusion 47References 483 Pulse By-products 59Iván Luzardo-Ocampo, M. Liceth Cuellar-Nuñez, B. Dave Oomah, and Guadalupe Loarca-Piña3.1 Introduction 593.2 Beans By-products 623.3 Pea (Pisum sativum) By-products 683.4 Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) and Lentil (Lens culinaris) By-products 713.5 Lupin (Lupinus) By-products 723.6 Other Pulse By-products 743.6.1 Pigeon Pea (Cajanus cajan L.) 743.6.2 Broad Beans (Vicia faba) 753.7 Concluding Remarks 78References 864 Aquafaba, from Food Waste to a Value-Added Product 93Rana Mustafa and Martin J. T. Reaney4.1 Introduction 934.2 Plant-based Dairy and Eggs Replacement 944.3 History of Use and Etymology 954.4 Composition of Chickpea and Aquafaba 964.5 Anti-nutritional Compounds 984.5.1 Protein Anti-nutritional Compounds 1004.5.2 Nonprotein Anti-nutritional Compounds 1004.6 Functional Properties 1014.6.1 Water Holding Capacity and Oil Holding Capacity 1024.6.2 Emulsion Stabilizer 1034.6.3 Foaming Properties 1044.6.4 Gelling and Thickening Properties 1074.7 Factors Affecting Functional Properties 1084.7.1 Effect of Cultivars and Genotypes 1084.7.2 Effect of Processing Methods 1104.8 Environmental Impact 1124.9 Value-added Products for the Food and Pharmaceutical Industries 1134.10 Current and Future Perspectives 1154.11 Conclusion 116References 1165 Brazilian (North and Northeast) Fruit By-Products 127Larissa Morais Ribeiro DA Silva, Paulo Henrique Machado de Sousa, Luiz Bruno de Sousa Sabino, Giovana Matias do Prado, Lucicleia Barros Vasconcelos Torres, Geraldo Arraes Maia, Raimundo Wilane de Figueiredo, and Nágila Maria Pontes Silva Ricardo5.1 Introduction 1275.2 Coproducts’ Origin 1315.3 Types of Waste Processing 1315.4 Bioactive Compounds 1325.4.1 Vitamin C 1335.4.2 Phenolic Compounds 1345.4.3 Antioxidant Activity in Fruit Coproducts 1365.4.4 Phytosterols in Fruit Coproducts 1415.5 Brazilian Fruit By-products from the North and Northeast as a Source of Colorants 1415.6 Brazilian North and Northeast Fruit By-products as Source of Polysaccharides 1445.7 Brazilian North and Northeast Fruit By-products as Source of Fibers 1455.8 Conclusions 149References 1496 Health Benefits of Mango By-products 159Abraham Wall-Medrano, Francisco J. Olivas-Aguirre, Jesus F. Ayala-Zavala, J. Abraham Domínguez-Avila, Gustavo A. Gonzalez-Aguilar, Luz A. Herrera-Cazares, and Marcela Gaytan-Martinez6.1 Introduction 1596.2 Mango Agro wastes and Industrial By-products 1616.2.1 Impacts of Generating Mango Wastes and By-products 1626.2.1.1 Economic Impact 1636.2.1.2 Environmental Impact 1636.2.2 Research and Development (R&D) 1646.3 Nutritional and Functional Value of Mango Wastes and By-products 1656.3.1 Nutritional and Functional Value of Mango Wastes and By-products 1656.3.1.1 Macro/Micronutrients 1656.3.1.2 Dietary Fiber 1666.3.1.3 Phenolic Compounds 1686.3.2 Metabolic Fate of Phytochemicals from Mango By-products 1706.4 Potential Health Benefits of Mango Wastes and By-products 1716.4.1 Infectious Diseases 1716.4.1.1 Antibiotic Effect: Planktonic Cells 1726.4.1.2 Antibiotic Effect: Biofilms 1746.4.1.3 Prebiotic Effects 1766.4.2 Noncommunicable Chronic Diseases (NCCDs) 1766.4.2.1 Obesity 1776.4.2.2 Diabetes Mellitus 1776.4.2.3 Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs) 1796.4.2.4 Cancer 1806.4.2.5 Inflammatory Diseases 1816.4.2.6 Neurological Diseases 182Acknowledgements 182References 1837 Citrus Waste Recovery for Sustainable Nutrition and Health 193Adriana Maite Fernández-Fernández, Eduardo Dellacassa, Alejandra Medrano-Fernandez, and María Dolores Del Castillo7.1 Introduction 1937.2 Citrus By-products: Natural Sources of Health-Promoting Food Ingredients 1947.2.1 Polyphenols 1967.2.2 Antioxidant dietary fiber 1987.3 Health-Promoting Effects 2007.4 Food Applications 2087.5 Safety 2107.6 Conclusions 210Acknowledgments 210References 2118 Vegetable By-products 223L. Gabriela Espinosa-Alonso, Maribel Valdez-Morales, Xochitl Aparicio-Fernandez, Sergio Medina-Godoy, and Fidel Guevara-Lara8.1 Introduction 2238.2 Global and/or by Region Vegetable Food Production and Postharvest Waste 2268.2.1 Tomato 2278.2.2 Chili 2298.2.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 2298.2.4 Zucchini 2308.2.5 Cucumber 2308.3 Global and/or Regional Vegetable Industrialization and By-Product Generation 2318.3.1 Tomato 2318.3.2 Chili 2328.3.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 2358.4 Nutraceutical Composition 2368.4.1 Tomato 2368.4.2 Chili 2378.4.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 2388.4.4 Zucchini 2398.4.5 Cucumber 2418.5 Proven Nutraceutical In Vitro and In Vivo Bioactivity 2428.5.1 Tomato 2428.5.2 Chili 2438.5.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 2458.5.4 Zucchini 2458.5.4.1 Fruit 2458.5.4.2 Peel 2468.5.4.3 Leaves and Stems 2478.5.5 Cucumber 2478.5.5.1 Fruit 2488.5.5.2 Seeds 2498.5.5.3 Peel 2508.5.5.4 Leaves and Stems 2508.6 Methods and Strategies Used by the Food Sector and Other Industries 2518.7 Commercialization or Transformation in Value-Added Products 2538.7.1 Tomato 2538.7.2 Seed Chili 2548.7.3 Broccoli and Cauliflower 2558.7.4 Zucchini 256Acknowledgments 256References 2569 Flaxseed By-products 267B. Dave Oomah9.1 Introduction 2679.2 Flaxseed Protein 2699.2.1 Extraction 2699.2.2 Composition 2729.2.3 Amino Acid Profile 2739.2.4 Product Application 2759.3 Advanced Processing 2769.4 Mucilage 2779.5 Current Trends and Perspectives 278Acknowledgments 283References 28310 Seed Hull Utilization 291E.E. Martinez-Soberanes, R. Mustafa, Martin J.T. Reaney, and W.J. Zhang10.1 Introduction 29110.2 Seed Hull Production 29210.3 Seed Hull Composition 29410.3.1 Dietary Fiber (DF) 29510.3.2 Phytochemicals 29710.3.3 Protein and Other Minor Components 30310.4 Dehulling Technology 30410.4.1 Seed Dehulling 30410.4.2 Dehulling Technology 30510.5 Recovery of Compounds from Seed Hull 30810.5.1 Traditional Solvent Extraction 30910.5.2 Ultrasonic-Assisted Extraction 31010.5.3 Microwave-Assisted Extraction 31210.5.4 Supercritical Fluid Extraction 31310.5.5 Membrane Separation 31410.5.6 Seed Hull in Value-Added Food Products 31610.6 Prospects and Challenges 316References 31711 Health Benefits of Spent Coffee Grounds 327Norma Julieta Salazar-López, Carlos Vladimir López-Rodríguez, Diego Antonio Hernández-Montoya, and Rocio Campos-Vega11.1 Introduction 32711.2 Coffea Arabica L. Generalities 32811.3 Coffee Processing and By-products 32911.3.1 Coffee Husks 33011.3.2 Coffee Pulp 33011.3.3 Coffee Silverskin 33111.3.4 Spent Coffee Grounds 33111.4 Physicochemical Characteristics in SCG 33111.5 Nutritional Properties of SCG 33311.5.1 Carbohydrates 33411.5.2 Proteins 33611.5.3 Lipids 33611.5.4 Minerals 33711.5.5 Feed Quality 33711.6 Nutraceuticals in SCG 33811.6.1 Dietary Fiber 33911.6.2 Resistant Starch 33911.6.3 Antioxidant Compounds 34011.6.4 Antioxidant Dietary Fiber 34111.7 Health Benefits of Spent Coffee Grounds 34111.7.1 Weight Management and Obesity 34211.7.2 Cardiovascular Diseases 34411.7.3 Gastrointestinal Diseases 34511.7.4 Cancer 346References 34812 Health Benefits of Silverskin 353Amaia Iriondo-DeHond, Teresa Herrera, and María Dolores Del Castillo12.1 Introduction 35312.2 Improvement of Gastrointestinal Health 35812.3 Prevention of Metabolic Disorders 35912.3.1 Obesity and Dyslipemia 36012.3.2 Diabetes 36212.4 Improvement of Skin Health 36312.5 Conclusions 366Acknowledgements 366References 36713 Cocoa By‐products 373Karen Haydeé Nieto Figueroa, Nancy Viridiana Mendoza García, and Rocio Campos-Vega13.1 Introduction 37313.2 Cocoa Bean Shell 37613.2.1 Chemical Composition 37613.2.2 Nutraceutical Composition 37713.2.2.1 Dietary Fiber 37713.2.2.2 Phenolic Compounds 37813.2.2.3 Methylxanthines 37913.2.2.4 Other Compounds 38013.2.3 Applications 38113.2.3.1 Feedstuff 38113.2.3.2 Agriculture 38213.2.3.3 Biofuels 38213.2.3.4 Adsorbent 38213.2.3.5 Dye 38313.2.3.6 Food Products 38313.2.3.7 Cocoa Shell Tea 38313.2.3.8 Cocoa Hulls Polyphenols as a Functional Ingredient for Bakery Applications 38313.2.3.9 Bio‐Recyclable Paper Packaging 38413.2.3.10 Cocoa Shell Extracts 38413.3 Cocoa Pod Husk 38613.3.1 Chemical Composition 38713.3.2 Drying Methods 38713.3.3 Nutraceutical Composition 38813.3.3.1 Dietary Fiber 38813.3.3.2 Antioxidants 39013.3.3.3 Theobromine 39113.3.3.4 Other Compounds 39213.3.4 Applications 39313.3.4.1 Animal Feed 39313.3.4.2 Soap Making 39413.3.4.3 Activated Carbon 39413.3.4.4 Fertilizer and Soil Organic Matter 39413.3.4.5 Paper Making 39513.3.4.6 Biofuels and Chemical Industry 39513.3.4.7 Gums 39613.3.4.8 Source of Enzymes 39613.4 Cocoa Mucilage/Pulp/Sweating 39613.4.1 Chemical Composition 39713.4.2 Nutraceutical Composition 39813.4.2.1 Dietary Fiber 39813.4.2.2 Phenolic Content 39813.4.3 Applications 39913.4.3.1 Cocoa Juice 39913.4.3.2 Cocoa Alcoholic Products 39913.4.3.3 Pectin 40013.4.3.4 Marmalade 40013.4.3.5 Cocoa Jelly 40113.4.3.6 Other Products 40113.5 Technological Properties of Cocoa By‐products 40213.5.1 Water (WHC)‐ and Oil (OHC)‐Holding and Swelling Capacities (SWC) 40213.6 Concluding Remarks 402References 40314 Emerging and Potential Bio-Applications of Agro-Industrial By-products Through Implementation of Nanobiotechnology 413Hayde Azeneth Vergara-Castañeda, Gabriel Luna-Bárcenas, and Héctor Pool14.1 Introduction 41314.2 Green Synthesis of Metallic Nanoparticles Mediated by Agro-Industrial Wastes 41414.2.1 Gold Nanoparticles 41714.2.2 Silver Nanoparticles 41914.2.3 Quantum Dots 42214.3 Agro-Industrial Wastes as Platforms for Biofunctional Nanocomposite Production 42514.4 Nano-Drug Delivery Systems for Encapsulation, Protection, and Controlled Release of Bioactive Agents Extracted from Agro-Industrial Wastes 43114.5 Concluding Remarks 435References 436Index 445