Environmental Considerations Associated with Hydraulic Fracturing Operations

JAMES A. JACOBS is Principal Resource Scientist and Hydrogeologist at Clearwater Group. He is a Fulbright Senior Scholar and co-author of four environmental books and has served as an expert in a variety of oil and gas valuation and environmental contamination cases. STEPHEN M. TESTA is the former Executive Officer of the California State Mining and Geology Board and past president of the American Geosciences Institute, Environmental Geosciences and Energy Minerals Division of the American Association of Petroleum Geologists, American Institute of Professional Geologists, and Los Angeles Basin Geological Society.

• List of Figures xviiList of Tables xxviiForeword xxxiAcknowledgments xxxiii1 Introduction 11.1 Energy and the Shale Revolution 11.2 Cultural Influences 31.3 Conventional Versus Unconventional Resources 41.4 Well Simulation 51.5 Hydraulic Fracturing in the United States 161.6 Environmental Considerations 171.7 Exercises 22References 22Suggested Reading 232 Historical Development from Fracturing to Hydraulic Fracturing 252.1 Introduction 252.2 Explosives and Guns (1820s–1930s) 262.3 The Birth of the Petroleum Engineer (1940s–1950s) 382.4 Going Nuclear During Peak Oil (1960s to Mid‐1970s) 392.5 The Rise of the Unconventionals (Mid‐1970s to Present) 452.6 Exercises 49References 50Suggested Reading 513 Geology of Unconventional Resources 533.1 Introduction 533.2 Oil Shale Nomenclature 543.3 Oil Shale Classification 543.4 Types of Shale Formations Based on Production 563.5 Geology of United States Shale Deposits 603.6 The Role of Natural Fractures 753.7 Exercises 76References 77Suggested Reading 794 Overview of Drilling and Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Techniques for Tight Oil and Gas Shale Formations 814.1 Introduction 814.2 Phase 1: Prospect Generation for Unconventional Oil and Gas Targets 854.3 Phase 2: Planning Phase 924.4 Phase 3: Drilling 944.5 Brief Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing 1094.6 Operators and Contractors 1114.7 Phase 4: Completion 1114.8 Overview of Hydraulic Fracturing Process 1154.9 Single‐Stage Treatment 1194.10 Fluid Recovery and Waste Management 1234.11 Oil and Gas Production 1234.12 Naturally Occurring Radioactive Material (NORM) 1264.13 Workshop #1: Gas Well Economic Limit 1284.14 Workshop #2: Oil Well Economics 1294.15 Well Destruction 1294.16 Summary 1314.17 Exercises 131References 132Suggested Reading 1345 Overview of Impacts from Tight Oil and Shale Gas Resource Development 1375.1 Introduction 1375.2 Potential Impacts and Risks of Spills 1375.3 Significance of Impacts 1375.4 Overview of the Five Main Resource Categories 1385.5 Primary Wastes Generated 1465.6 Site‐specific Impact Analysis 1465.7 Summary of Resources and Issues 1635.8 Summary 1745.9 Exercises 176References 177Suggested Reading 1796 Surface and Groundwater Risks, Resource Quality Management, and Impacts 1836.1 Introduction 1836.2 The Hydraulic Fracturing Water Cycle 1836.3 Potential Impacts on Drinking Water Resources 1886.4 Public Water System (PWS) Sources 1896.5 Underground Injection Control 1906.6 Case Histories 1966.7 Exercises 198References 198Suggested Reading 1997 Induced Seismicity 2037.1 Introduction 2037.2 Measuring Earthquake Severity 2047.3 Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 2087.4 Mechanics of Anthropogenic‐Induced Earthquakes 2107.5 Induced Microseismicity and Microseismic Monitoring 2127.6 Exercises 212References 213Suggested Reading 2138 Air Quality Resources and Mitigation Measures 2158.1 Introduction 2158.2 Unconventional Resource Extraction and Air Quality 2158.3 Sources of Air Emissions 2158.4 Worker Safety 2208.5 Gas Leaks and Vapor Sampling 2308.6 Biogenic and Thermogenic Hydrocarbon Gases 2328.7 Gas Leaks 2338.8 Soil Vapor Intrusion Overview 2348.9 General Approach to Evaluating Soil Vapor Intrusion 2378.10 Summary 2488.11 Exercises 249References 249Suggested Reading 2539 Land Use Resources and Socioeconomics 2559.1 Introduction 2559.2 Community Concerns and Land Use Planning 2559.3 Environmental Justice 2599.4 Land Disturbance 2599.5 Light Pollution 2619.6 Noise 2639.7 Odor 2709.8 Socioeconomics 2719.9 Transportation and Traffic 2729.10 Visual Aesthetics 2779.11 Worker Safety 2789.12 Cumulative Impacts 2789.13 Exercises 279References 279Suggested Reading 28110 Ecological Resources 28310.1 Introduction 28310.2 Ecosystem Resources 28310.3 Ecosystem Resources 28310.4 Interim Reclamation 28610.5 Summary 29510.6 Exercises 295References 296Suggested Reading 29711 Legislative Trends Associated with Well Stimulation and Hydraulic Fracturing 29911.1 Introduction 29911.2 Federal Laws and Regulations 30011.3 State Legislation and Regulations 30411.4 Bans and Moratoriums 31111.5 Exercises 313References 313Suggested Reading 31412 Sampling, Exposure Pathways, and Site Conceptual Models 31512.1 Introduction 31512.2 Hypothetical Scenario 31712.3 Overview of Sampling Procedures 32212.4 Soil and Water Sampling 32712.5 Field Screening and Analysis 32912.6 Other Considerations 33212.7 Fate and Transport 33912.8 Summary 34212.9 Exercises 342References 345Suggested Reading 34713 Financial Issues: Real Estate Values and Selected Contracting Costs of Repairs, Assessment, or Mitigation Activities for Unconventional Oil and Gas Production Areas 35113.1 Introduction 35113.2 Valuation of Real Estate 35113.3 Water Supplies 35713.4 Other Mitigating Costs 35813.5 Mitigation of Subsurface Impacts 36213.6 Remediation Strategies 36513.7 Budgeting for Costs 36913.8 Summary 37213.9 Exercises 373References 374Suggested Reading 37514 Legal Considerations and Case Law 37714.1 Introduction 37714.2 Environmental Tort Litigation 38214.3 Environmental/Citizen Action and Industry Challenges Litigation 38314.4 Infrastructure‐Related Litigation 38414.5 Traditional Oil and Gas Issues in Nontraditional Forums 38414.6 Fracking Bans and Moratoriums 38414.7 Summary 38614.8 Exercises 387Reference 387Suggested Reading 38715 Spills, Forensic Evaluation, and Case Studies 38915.1 Introduction 38915.2 Spill Studies 38915.3 Spill Settlement Case Study 39215.3.1 Rail Case Studies 39315.3.2 Bakken Crude Oil Characteristics: Two Studies 39415.3.3 Summary of Bakken Crude Oil Spill Incidents 39415.3.4 Fate and Transport of Spilled Crude 39415.3.5 Combustion 39815.3.6 DOT‐117 Tank Car Design 39815.4 Violations 39915.5 Forensic Analysis 39915.5.1 Gas Chromatograms 40015.5.2 Tentatively Identified Compounds (TICs) 40115.5.3 Piper Diagrams 40115.5.4 Biomarkers 40315.5.5 Chemical and Biological Transformations 40415.5.6 Chemical Ratios 40615.5.7 Geochemical Tracers 40615.5.8 Isotopes 40715.5.9 Forensic Isotope Analysis 40815.5.10 Boron and Strontium Isotope Ratios 40915.5.11 Radioactive Isotopes 41015.5.12 Case Studies 41115.6 Prospective and Retrospective Case Studies 41315.6.1 US EPA Retrospective Case Study 41415.6.2 US EPA Retrospective Study Approach and Sampling Activities 41515.6.3 Main Findings 42015.6.4 Summary of US EPA Retrospective Studies 43815.7 Exercises 439References 440Suggested Reading 44616 Conclusions 453Appendix A Selected University Studies, State, and Federal Reports 455Appendix B Glossary 461Appendix C List of Acronyms and Abbreviations 467Appendix D Conversions 473Appendix E Summary of Potential Job Hazards During Hydraulic Fracture Stimulation Process 477Appendix F Chemical Additives Used in the High‐Volume Hydraulic Fracturing Operations 481Appendix G Exposure Planning, Emergency Response, and Toxicity Tables 485Appendix H Selected Sampling Methods and Documentation 493Appendix I Environmental Checklists 503Appendix J Metric Conversion of Table 3.4 (Metric Units in Bold italics) 523Appendix K US Crude Oil Prices 1859–2016 525Index 527