Environmental Chemistry

Muhammad Asif Hanif is a well-known scientist and currently working on different aspects of environmental remediation and analysis. He has published over 120 peer-reviewed journal articles, four books, and several book chapters. He has twelve years of experience teaching graduate students at the university level, and, in 2018, he won a prestigious award from the Pakistan Academy of Sciences. Farwa Nadeem has been working as an environmentalist for the last five years, providing protection against harmful human activities and educating the public about environmentalism. Her field of research at the Nano and Biomaterial Laboratory at the Department of Chemistry, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, Pakistan is alternative, renewable, and sustainable future energy resources. Ijaz Ahmad Bhatti is a well-known scientist and chemistry professor currently working on different aspects of radiation chemistry and renewable energy processes. He has published more than 126 international research papers in peer reviewed journals and approximately more than 40 papers in national journals. He has received various national and international scientific awards and has continuously been honoured with the "Research Productivity Award" seven times by the Pakistan Council of Science and Technology. He also has written several books and book chapters. Hafiz Muhammad Tauqeer is Lecturer of Chemistry with a specialization in environmental sciences. He has more than twenty publications in environmental chemistry and sciences and has experience in many niche areas in environmental chemistry.

• Acknowledgments xxiii1 Introduction to Environmental Chemistry 11.1 Beginning of the Universe 11.2 Plank’s Time 21.3 Components of Solar System 31.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum and Solar Radiations 51.4.1 Types of Electromagnetic Radiations 51.4.1.1 Cosmic Rays 51.4.1.2 Gamma Rays 61.4.1.3 X-Rays 61.4.1.4 Ultra-Violet Region 61.4.1.5 Visible Region 71.4.1.6 Infra-Red Region 71.4.1.7 Terahertz Region 71.4.1.8 Microwave Region 81.4.1.9 Radiowave Region 81.5 Evolution of Environmental Segments 81.5.1 Evolution of Atmosphere 81.5.1.1 First Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 91.5.1.2 Second Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 91.5.1.3 Third Stage of Atmospheric Evolution 91.5.2 Evolution of Hydrosphere 101.5.3 Evolution of Lithosphere/Geosphere 101.5.4 Evolution of Biosphere 111.6 Environmental Segments 111.7 Scope of Environmental Chemistry in Modern World 121.7.1 Pollution 121.7.2 Climate Change 121.7.3 Global Warming 121.7.4 Deforestation 131.7.5 Overpopulation 131.7.6 Industrial and Household Waste 131.7.7 Acid Rain 131.7.8 Ozone Layer Depletion 141.7.9 Genetic Engineering 141.7.10 Urban Sprawl 141.8 Solutions of Environmental Problems 141.8.1 Green Chemistry 151.8.2 Renewable Energy Processes 151.8.3 Biofuels 151.8.4 Role of Biotechnology 162 Atmosphere 172.1 Introduction to Atmosphere 172.1.1 Layers of Atmosphere 182.1.1.1 Troposphere 182.1.1.2 Stratosphere 192.1.1.3 Mesosphere 202.1.1.4 Thermosphere 202.1.1.5 Exosphere 212.1.2 Importance of Atmosphere 212.1.3 Components of Atmosphere 222.1.3.1 Primary Gases 232.1.3.2 Greenhouse Gases (GHGs) 232.1.3.3 Reactive Gases 242.1.3.4 Aerosols 282.1.3.5 Deviations with Height 282.1.3.6 Deviations with Latitude and Season 292.1.3.7 Deviations with Time 302.2 Solar Radiations and Energy Budget 322.2.1 Total Radiations of Sun 322.2.1.1 Solar Output 322.2.1.2 Distance from Sun 342.2.1.3 Altitude of Sun 352.2.1.4 Day Length 352.2.2 Effects of Solar Radiations 352.2.2.1 Transference of Energy 352.2.2.2 Effect of Atmosphere 362.2.2.3 Effect of Cloud Cover 372.2.2.4 Effect of Latitude 372.2.2.5 Effect of Land and Sea 382.2.2.6 Effect of Elevation 402.2.2.7 Temperature Variations with Height 402.2.3 IR Radiations and Greenhouse Effects 412.2.4 Earth’s Heat Budget 432.3 Atmospheric Moisture Budget 442.3.1 Condensation 442.3.2 Precipitation 442.3.2.1 Forms of Precipitation 452.3.2.2 Characteristics of Precipitation 462.3.2.3 Pattern of Precipitation 462.4 Variability of Atmosphere 472.4.1 Cloud Formation 472.4.1.1 Condensation Nuclei 472.4.1.2 Types of Clouds 482.4.1.3 Cloud Cover 542.4.2 Precipitation Formation 542.5 Reactions in Atmosphere 552.5.1 Photochemical Reactions 562.5.2 Biochemical Reactions 612.5.3 Acid Base Reactions 622.5.4 Reactions of Oxygen 632.5.5 Reactions of Nitrogen 662.5.6 Reactions of Carbon Dioxide 683 Air Pollution and Control Strategies 713.1 Introduction to Air Pollution 713.1.1 Particles in Atmosphere 723.1.2 Inorganic Air Pollutants 733.1.2.1 Composition of Particles 743.1.2.2 Fly Ash 753.1.2.3 Asbestos 763.1.2.4 Toxic Heavy Metals 773.1.2.5 Radioactive Particles 793.1.2.6 Effects of Particles 803.1.2.7 Water as Particulate Matter 803.1.3 Oxides of Carbon 813.1.3.1 Sources of Carbon Monoxide 813.1.3.2 Fate of Carbon Monoxide 823.1.3.3 Effects of Carbon Monoxide 823.1.3.4 Controlled Emissions of Carbon Monoxide 833.1.3.5 Sources of Carbon Dioxide 833.1.3.6 Natural Carbon Cycle 853.1.3.7 Chemical Reactions of Carbon Dioxide 853.1.3.8 Ozone Depletion and Greenhouse Effect 863.1.3.9 Impacts on Plant Growth 873.1.3.10 Impacts on Human Health 893.1.3.11 Impacts on Animals 903.1.3.12 Controlled Emissions of Carbon Dioxide 913.1.4 Oxides of Sulphur 913.1.4.1 Reactions of Sulphur Dioxide 923.1.4.2 Effects of Sulphur Dioxide on Ecosystem, Animals and Plants 943.1.4.3 Removal of Sulphur Dioxide 963.1.5 Oxides of Nitrogen 993.1.5.1 Reactions of Oxides of Nitrogen 1013.1.5.2 Effects of Oxides of Nitrogen on Ecosystem, Humans and Animals 1033.1.5.3 Removal of Oxides of Nitrogen 1053.1.6 Acid Rain 1063.1.6.1 Emissions of Acidified Chemicals 1083.1.6.2 Chemical Processes 1093.1.6.3 Acid Deposition 1093.1.6.4 Effects of Acid Rain 1103.1.6.5 Preventive Measures 1113.1.7 Atmospheric Ammonia 1113.1.8 Fluorine, Chlorine and Hydrogen Chloride 1123.1.9 Hydrogen Sulphide, Carbonyl Sulphide and Carbon Disulphide 1133.1.10 Organic Air Pollutants 1143.1.10.1 Natural and Anthropogenic Sources 1143.1.10.2 Distillation and Fractionation of Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 1173.1.11 Reactions of Aryl Hydrocarbons 1173.1.12 Nonhydrocarbon Organic Compounds 1213.1.12.1 Carbonyl Compounds 1213.1.12.2 Miscellaneous Oxygen Compounds 1243.1.12.3 Organohalides 1263.1.12.4 Organo Sulphur Compounds 1303.1.12.5 Organo Nitrogen Compounds 1313.1.13 Photochemical Smog 1333.1.14 Indoor Air Pollutants 1333.1.15 Outdoor Air Pollutants 1343.2 Accidents and Episodes 1343.2.1 Smog in London, England (1952) 1353.2.2 Radionuclides Emissions, Three Mile Island, United States (1979) 1353.2.3 Bhopal Disaster, India (1984) 1353.2.4 Chernobyl Legacy, Ukraine (1986) 1363.2.5 Smog of Punjab, Pakistan/India (2016) 1363.3 Air Pollution Control Strategies 1363.3.1 Control of Particulates 1373.3.2 Control of Oxides of Nitrogen 1383.3.3 Control of Sulphur Dioxide 1383.3.4 Control of Mercury 1384 Hydrosphere 1414.1 Introduction to Hydrosphere 1414.2 Importance of Hydrosphere 1424.3 Unique Properties of Water 1424.3.1 Water, Ice and Vapors 1434.3.2 Chemical Properties of Water 1454.3.3 Reactions of Water 1464.4 Hydrologic Cycle 1484.5 Characteristics of Water Bodies 1494.6 Life in Water 1504.7 Aquatic Chemistry 1514.8 Gases in Water 1534.9 Alkalinity 1544.10 Calcium and Other Metals in Water 1554.10.1 Hydrated Metals Ions as Acids 1564.10.2 Contents of Calcium 1574.11 Complexation and Chelation 1574.12 Hydrolysis and Complexation of Polyphosphates in Water 1604.13 Complexation by Humic Substances 1624.14 Complexation and Redox Processes 1644.15 Oxidation-Reduction 1644.16 Chemical Interactions Involving Solids, Gases and Water 1654.17 Formation of Sediments 1654.18 Colloidal Particles in Water 1674.18.1 Occurrence of Colloids 1674.18.2 Types of Colloidal Particles 1674.18.3 Colloidal Stability 1684.19 Colloidal Properties of Clays 1704.20 Microbial Biochemistry in Water 1714.20.1 Aquatic Biochemical Processes 1725 Water Pollution and Treatment Technologies 1735.1 Water Pollution 1735.1.1 Toxic Heavy Metals 1755.1.1.1 Cadmium (Cd) 1765.1.1.2 Lead (Pb) 1765.1.1.3 Mercury (Hg) 1775.1.1.4 Beryllium (Be) 1785.1.2 Metalloids 1785.1.2.1 Arsenic (As) 1785.1.2.2 Boron (B) 1805.1.3 Organometallic Compounds 1815.1.3.1 Organolead Compounds 1815.1.3.2 Organonickel Compounds 1825.1.3.3 Organomercury Compounds 1825.1.3.4 Organoarsenic Compounds 1835.1.3.5 Organotin Compounds 1835.1.3.6 Organozinc Compounds 1845.1.4 Volatile Organic Compounds 1855.1.5 Synthetic Organic Compounds 1955.1.6 Inorganic Compounds 2035.1.7 Pesticides 2105.1.7.1 Insecticides 2105.1.7.2 Herbicides 2155.1.7.3 Fungicides 2185.1.7.4 Nematicides 2185.1.7.5 Rodenticides 2195.1.8 Persistent Organic Pollutants 2195.1.9 Eutrophication 2255.1.10 Acidity, Alkalinity and Salinity 2255.1.11 Oxygen, Oxidants and Reductants 2265.1.12 Soaps, Detergents and Detergent Builders 2275.1.13 Radionuclides in Aquatic Environment 2295.2 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 2305.2.1 Water Treatment and Water Use 2315.2.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment 2315.2.3 Treatment of Water for Industrial Use 2325.2.4 Sewage/Municipal Treatment 2335.2.4.1 Primary Waste Treatment 2335.2.4.2 Secondary Waste Treatment by Biological Processes 2345.2.4.3 Tertiary Waste Treatment 2365.2.4.4 Physical-Chemical Treatment of Municipal Wastewater 2375.2.5 Industrial Wastewater Treatment 2385.2.6 Removal of Solids 2395.2.7 Removal of Calcium and Magnessium 2405.2.8 Removal of Iron and Manganese 2445.2.9 Removal of Dissolved Organics 2455.2.10 Removal of Herbicides 2475.2.11 Removal of Dissolved Inorganics 2475.2.11.1 Electrodialysis 2485.2.11.2 Ion Exchange 2495.2.11.3 Reverse Osmosis 2505.2.12 Removal of Phosphorous 2505.2.13 Removal of Nitrogen 2515.2.14 Sludge 2525.2.15 Water Disinfection 2545.2.15.1 Chlorine Dioxide 2565.2.15.2 Ozone 2565.2.16 Natural Water Purification Processes 2575.2.17 Industrial Wastewater Treatment by Soil 2585.2.18 Wastewater Characteristics of Pulp and Paper Mills 2595.2.18.1 Water Pollution by Paper and Pulp Industry 2595.2.18.2 Suspended Solids 2605.2.18.3 Dissolved Solids Organic Matter 2605.2.18.4 Inorganic Matter 2605.2.18.5 Chlorine and Chlorine-Based Materials 2615.2.18.6 Sulfur, Hydrogen Sulfide and Sulfur Dioxide 2615.2.19 Wastewater Treatment Technologies 2625.2.19.1 Biological Wastewater Treatment 2625.2.19.2 Research and Development in Pollution Control 2635.2.20 Water Reuse and Recycling 2635.3 Drinking Water Quality Standards 2645.3.1 Colour of Water 2645.3.2 Microbial Standards for Drinking Water 2645.3.3 Taste and Odour 2655.3.4 Turbidity 2655.3.5 The pH of Drinking Water 2665.3.6 Aluminium (Al) 2665.3.7 Antimony (Sb) 2675.3.8 Arsenic (As) 2675.3.9 Barium (Ba) 2675.3.10 Boron (B) 2675.3.11 Cadmium (Cd) 2685.3.12 Chloride (Cl) 2685.3.13 Chromium (Cr) 2685.3.14 Copper (Cu) 2685.3.15 Cyanide (CN) 2695.3.16 Fluoride (F) 2695.3.17 Iodine (I) 2695.3.18 Lead (Pb) 2695.3.19 Manganese (Mn) 2705.3.20 Mercury (Hg) 2705.3.21 Nickel (Ni) 2705.3.22 Nitrate and Nitrite 2715.3.23 Selenium (Se) 2715.3.24 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) 2715.3.25 Zinc (Zn) 2715.3.26 Radioactive Material 2725.3.27 Polynuclear Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) 2725.3.28 Pesticides, Herbicides and Fungicides 2725.4 Future Plan for Improved Water Quality 2736 Lithosphere/Geosphere 2756.1 Introduction to Lithosphere/Geosphere 2756.2 Composition of Rocks 2766.3 Characteristics of Igneous Rocks 2786.3.1 Types of Igneous Rocks 2796.3.2 Igneous Rocks and Bowen Reaction Series 2806.4 Characteristics of Sedimentary Rocks 2816.5 Characteristics of Metamorphic Rocks 2826.5.1 Heat and Metamorphism 2826.5.2 Pressure and Metamorphism 2836.5.3 Chemical Actions of Fluids 2836.5.4 Types of Metamorphism 2836.5.5 Common Metamorphic Rocks 2846.6 Structure of Earth and Isostacy 2846.7 Plate Tectonics 2856.8 Earthquakes 2866.8.1 Earthquake Waves 2876.9 Volcanism 2886.10 Weathering 2896.10.1 Products of Weathering 2896.10.2 Chemical Weathering 2906.10.3 Physical Weathering 2906.10.4 Biological Weathering 2916.11 Landform of Weathering 2926.11.1 Regiolith and Soil 2926.11.2 Limestone Landforms 2926.11.3 Periglacial Landforms 2936.12 Introduction to Soil 2936.12.1 Organic Activity 2946.12.2 Translocation 2946.12.3 Soil Texture 2946.12.4 Soil pH 2956.12.5 Soil Colour 2956.12.6 Soil Profile 2966.13 Interaction of Lithosphere with other Spheres 2967 Soil Pollution and Remediation Processes 2997.1 Introduction to Soil Pollution 2997.2 Causes of Land Pollution 3027.3 Soil Contaminants 3037.3.1 Organic Pollutants 3037.3.2 Inorganic Pollutants 3037.3.3 Persistent Organic Pollutants (POPs) 3037.3.4 Petroleum Hydrocarbons 3357.3.5 Radionuclides 3407.4 Effects of Soil Pollution 3417.4.1 Endangering Human Health 3417.4.2 Economic Losses 3417.4.3 Air and Water Contamination 3417.4.4 Effect on Plant Life 3427.4.5 Acidification 3427.4.6 Diminished Soil Fertility 3427.4.7 Changes in Soil Structure 3427.4.8 Increase in Soil Salinity 3437.5 Ecotoxicology of Soil 3437.5.1 Role of Microorganisms in Soil 3437.5.2 Effects of POPs on Soil 3447.5.3 Effects of Pesticides on Soil 3447.6 Reclamation of Contaminated Land 3447.6.1 Ex situ Methods 3457.6.1.1 Destructive Methods 3477.6.1.2 Thermal Methods 3497.6.1.3 Biological Methods 3577.6.1.4 Physiochemical Methods 3667.6.2 In situ Methods 3767.6.2.1 Physical Methods 3767.6.2.2 Chemical Methods 3797.6.2.3 Biological Methods 3827.6.2.4 Thermal Methods 3847.7 Solutions to Soil Pollution 3917.7.1 Reduced Use of Pesticides 3917.7.2 Organic Farming 3927.7.3 Reduced Yield Pressure 3927.7.4 Control Grazing and Forest Management 3927.7.5 Wind Breaks and Wind Shield 3957.7.6 Special Pits for Dumping Wastes 3957.7.7 Soil Binding Greases 3957.7.8 Afforestation and Reforestation 3967.7.9 Recycling of Materials 3977.7.10 Solid Waste Treatment 3988 Biosphere 3998.1 Introduction to Biosphere 3998.2 Extent of Earth’s Biosphere 3998.3 Components of Biosphere 4008.4 Industrial Ecology 4038.4.1 Industrial Ecosystem 4048.4.2 Societal Factors and Environmental Ethics 4048.5 Natural Cycles 4058.5.1 Hydrologic Cycle 4058.5.2 Carbon Cycle 4068.5.3 Nitrogen Cycle 4108.5.4 Sulphur Cycle 4138.5.5 Phosphorous Cycle 4158.5.6 Oxygen Cycle 4158.5.7 Halogens and Organohalides 4168.5.8 Iron Cycle 4168.5.9 Selenium Cycle 4198.6 Disturbances in Biosphere 4198.7 Remote Sensing of Biosphere at NASA 4249 Noise Pollution 4279.1 What Is Noise Pollution? 4279.2 Noise Sources 4279.2.1 Typical Range of Noise Levels 4279.2.2 Characteristics of Industrial Noise 4299.2.2.1 Industrial Noise Sources 4309.2.2.2 Mining and Construction Noise 4319.2.3 Transportation Noise 432xvi Contents9.2.4 Urban Noise 4329.2.5 Specific Noise Sources 4349.3 Effects of Noise 4349.3.1 Reactions to Noise 4349.3.1.1 Auditory Effects 4359.3.1.2 Permanent Threshold Shift (PTS) 4359.3.1.3 Acoustic Trauma 4369.3.2 Damage-Risk Criteria 4369.3.3 Psychological Effects of Noise Pollution 4369.3.3.1 Speech Interference 4369.3.3.2 Annoyance 4379.3.3.3 Sleep Interference 4379.3.3.4 Effects on Performance 4379.3.3.5 Acoustic Privacy 4389.3.3.6 Subjective Responses 4389.4 Noise Measurements 4389.4.1 Instruments for Measuring Noise 4399.4.2 Impacts and Impulse Magnitude 4409.4.3 Monitoring Devices 4409.4.4 Field Measurements 44010 Toxicological Chemistry 44310.1 Introduction to Toxicological Chemistry 44310.2 Synergism, Potentiation and Antagonism 44410.3 Dose Response Relationship 44410.4 Relative Toxicities 44410.5 Reversibility and Sensitivity 44510.5.1 Hypersensitivity and Hyposensitivity 44510.6 Xenobiotic and Endogenous Substances 44510.7 Toxicological Chemistry 44610.7.1 Toxicants in Body 44610.8 Kinetic Phase and Dynamic Phase 44610.8.1 Primary Reaction in Dynamic Phase 44710.8.2 Biochemical Effects in Dynamic Phase 44710.8.3 Response to Toxicants 44710.8.4 Tetragenesis 44810.8.5 Mutagenesis 44810.8.6 Carcinogenesis 44810.8.6.1 Biochemistry of Carcinogenesis 44810.8.6.2 Alkylating Agents in Carcinogenesis 44910.8.7 Testing for Carcinogens 44910.8.8 Immune System Response 44910.8.9 Estrogenic Substances 45010.9 ATSDR Toxicological Profiles 45010.10 Biotransformation of Xenobiotics 45010.10.1 Basic Properties of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 45010.10.2 Biotransformation versus Metabolism 45110.10.3 Stereochemical Aspects of Xenobiotic Biotransformation 45110.10.4 Phase I and Phase II Biotransformation 45210.10.5 Nomenclature of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 45210.10.6 Distribution of Xenobiotic Bio-Transforming Enzymes 45210.10.7 Xenobiotic Biotransformation by Phase I Enzymes 45210.10.7.1 Hydrolysis 45310.10.7.2 Reduction 45310.10.7.3 Oxidation 45310.10.7.4 Activation of Xenobiotics by Cytochrome P450 45410.10.7.5 P450 Knockout Mice 45410.10.7.6 Inhibition of Cytochrome P450 45410.10.7.7 Induction of Cytochrome P450 45510.10.8 Phase II Enzyme Reactions 45510.10.8.1 Glucuronidation 45510.10.8.2 Sulfation 45610.10.8.3 Methylation 45610.10.8.4 Acetylation 45610.10.8.5 Amino Acid Conjugation 45710.10.8.6 Glutathione Conjugation 45710.10.8.7 Rhodanese 45710.10.8.8 Phosphorylation 45810.11 Toxic Inorganic Compounds 45810.11.1 Cyanide 45810.11.2 Carbon Mono Oxide 45910.11.3 Nitrogen Oxides 45910.11.4 Hydrogen Halides 45910.11.5 Asbestos 46010.11.6 Inorganic Compounds of Silicon 46010.11.7 Inorganic Phosphorous Compounds 46110.11.8 Inorganic Compounds of Sulphur 46110.11.9 Organo Metallic Compounds 46210.11.9.1 Organo Lead Compounds 46210.11.9.2 Organo Tin Compounds 46210.12 Toxicology of Organic Compounds 46310.12.1 Alkane Hydrocarbon 46310.12.2 Alkene and Alkyne Hydrocarbons 46310.12.3 Benzene and Aromatic Hydrocarbon 46410.12.4 Oxygen Containing Organic Compounds 46410.12.5 Organo Nitrogen Compounds 46510.12.6 Organo Halide Compounds 46610.12.7 Organo Halide Pesticide 46610.12.8 Organo Sulphur Compounds 46710.12.9 Organo Phosphorous Compounds 46711 Environmental Disasters 46911.1 Introduction to Environmental Disasters 46911.2 Types of Environmental Disasters 46911.2.1 Agricultural Disasters 46911.2.2 Biodiversity Disasters 47011.2.3 Industrial Disasters 47011.2.4 Human Health Disasters 47011.2.5 Natural Disasters 47011.2.6 Nuclear Disasters 47011.2.7 Geo-Hydrological Disasters 47111.2.8 Climate Change and Disasters 47211.3 Historical Environmental Disasters 47211.3.1 “Fat Man” and “Little Boy” Attack on Japan (1945) 47211.3.2 Plant Emissions in Donora, Penn., U.S. (1948) 47311.3.3 Four-Day Fog in London, England (1952) 47311.3.4 Love Canal, Niagara Falls, New York (1953) 47411.3.5 New York Smog (1966) 47411.3.6 Smiling Buddha Indian Nuclear Test (1974) 47511.3.7 Release of Methyl Isocynate in Bhopal, India (1984) 47511.3.8 Radionuclide Releases, Chernobyl, Ukraine (1986) 47611.3.9 Air Pollution Asia (2016) 47711.3.10 Fuel Tanker Explosion, Bahawalpur, Pakistan (2017) 47711.3.11 Beirut Explosion, Lebanon (2020) 47812 Hazardous Wastes 47912.1 Introduction to Hazardous Wastes 47912.2 Classification of Hazardous Wastes 47912.3 Characteristics of Hazardous Wastes 48012.4 Types of Wastes 49512.4.1 Radionuclides/Nuclear Waste 52612.4.2 Chemical Waste 52712.4.3 Biological Waste 52712.5 Hazardous Waste Management 52812.5.1 Radionuclide/Nuclear Waste Management 52812.5.2 Chemical Waste Management 52912.5.3 Biological Waste Management 52913 Non-Renewable Energy Resources 53113.1 What Is Energy? 53113.2 Types of Energy 53213.3 Natural Gas 53313.3.1 Global Statistics 53313.3.2 Historical Perspective 53413.3.3 Chemical Composition 53513.3.4 Process of Formation of Natural Gas 53513.3.5 Generation and Transmission of Electricity 53613.3.6 What Is LNG? 53713.3.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 53713.4 Coal 53813.4.1 Global Trends in Coal 53813.4.2 Historical Milestones 53813.4.3 Types of Coal 53913.4.4 Process of Coal Formation 54013.4.5 Electricity Production from Coal Power Plant 54013.4.6 Coal in Steel Production 54013.4.7 Coal Liquification 54113.4.8 Coal and Cement 54213.4.9 Advantages and Disadvantages 54213.5 Petroleum 54313.5.1 Global Petroleum Reserves 54313.5.2 Historical Perspective 54413.5.3 Chemistry of Petroleum 54413.5.4 Classification of Crude Oil 54513.5.5 Process of Formation 54513.5.6 Worldwide Applications of Petroleum 54613.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 54613.6 Nuclear Energy 54713.6.1 Nuclear Fusion 54713.6.2 Nuclear Fission 54913.6.3 Nuclear Reactor 55013.6.4 Generation of Electricity from Nuclear Energy 55013.6.5 Global Statistical Perspective 55213.6.6 Future Demands of Nuclear Energy 55213.6.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 55314 Renewable Energy Resources 55514.1 Introduction to Renewable Energy Resources 55514.2 Wind Energy 55614.2.1 History of Wind Energy 55714.2.2 World Wind Energy Statistics 55814.2.3 Types of Wind Turbines 55814.2.3.1 Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine 55914.2.3.2 Vertical Axis Wind Turbine 56014.2.3.3 Ducted Wind Turbines 56014.2.4 Method of Electricity Generation from Wind Energy 56114.2.5 Importance of Area Selection for Wind Energy 56214.2.6 Advantages and Disadvantages 56214.3 Solar Energy 56314.3.1 Historical Perspective 56314.3.2 Global Statistics 56414.3.3 Types of Solar Cells 56514.3.3.1 Amorphous Silicon Solar Cell 56514.3.3.2 Crystalline Silicon Solar Cell 56514.3.3.3 Monocrystalline Solar Cell 56614.3.3.4 Polycrystalline Solar Cell 56614.3.3.5 Thin Film Solar Cell 56714.3.4 Working Principle of Solar Energy System 56714.3.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 56914.4 Water-Derived Energy 56914.4.1 Tidal Power 56914.4.2 Wave Power 57014.4.3 Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion 57014.4.4 Method of Generation of Electricity 57114.4.5 Advantages and Disadvantages 57214.5 Geothermal Energy 57214.5.1 Brief History 57314.5.2 Statistical Interpretation 57314.5.3 Principles of Electricity Generation 57414.5.4 Geysers 57514.5.5 Flash Steam Geothermal Power Plant 57614.5.6 Binary Cycle Geothermal Power Plant 57614.5.7 Advantages and Disadvantages 57714.6 Fuel Cells 57714.6.1 History of Fuel Cells 57714.6.2 Types of Fuel Cells 57814.6.2.1 Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC) 57814.6.2.2 Molten Carbonate Fuel Cells (MCFC) 57814.6.2.3 Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC) 57914.6.2.4 Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) 57914.6.2.5 Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC) 58014.6.3 Working Principle of Fuel Cell 58014.6.4 Advantages and Disadvantages 58115 Biofuels 58315.1 Introduction to Biofuels 58315.2 Properties of Biofuels 58415.2.1 Molecular Structure 58415.2.2 Physical Properties 58415.2.3 Chemical Properties 58515.3 Potential of Biomass 58615.4 Biofuel Standardization 58715.5 Types of Biofuels 58715.5.1 First-Generation Biofuels 58815.5.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 58815.5.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 58915.6 Bioethanol 58915.6.1 Food Stock Production 58915.6.1.1 Sugar Crops 59015.6.1.2 Starch Crops 59215.6.1.3 Cellulosic Feedstock 59315.6.2 Bioethanol Production 59315.6.2.1 Sugar to Ethanol Process 59415.6.2.2 Starch to Ethanol Process 59415.6.2.3 Cellulose to Ethanol Process 59515.6.2.4 Distillation and Dehydration Process 59615.6.3 Properties of Bioethanol 59615.6.4 Technology Applications of Bioethanol 59715.6.4.1 Spark Ignition Engines 59715.6.4.2 Fuel Cells 59715.6.5 Standardization of Bioethanol 59815.6.6 Energy Balance of Bioethanol 59815.6.7 Bioethanol Emissions 59915.6.7.1 Green House Emissions 59915.6.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 60015.6.8 Other Environmental Aspects of Bioethanol 60015.6.8.1 Water Issues 60015.6.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 60115.6.8.3 Human Health 60215.6.9 Economy of Bioethanol 60215.7 Lipid-Derived Biofuels 60315.7.1 Feedstock Production 60315.7.1.1 Oil Seed Crops 60415.7.1.2 Microalgae 60615.7.1.3 Animal Fats 60715.7.1.4 Waste Oils 60815.7.2 Fuel Production 60815.7.2.1 Oil Extraction 60915.7.2.2 Oil Refining 61015.7.2.3 Trans Esterification 61115.7.3 Properties and Use of Lipid Biofuels 61215.7.3.1 Properties of Pure Plant Oil 61215.7.3.2 Properties of Biodiesel 61315.7.4 Technology Applications of Lipid Biofuels 61415.7.4.1 Compression Ignition Engine for Biodiesel Use 61415.7.4.2 Compression Ignition Engine for PPO Use 61515.7.5 Standardization of Lipid Biofuels 61515.7.5.1 Standardization of PPO 61515.7.5.2 Standardization of Biodiesel 61515.7.7 Emission of Lipid Biofuels 61715.7.7.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 61715.7.7.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 61815.7.8 Other Environmental Impacts of Lipid Biofuels 61815.7.8.1 Water Issues 61915.7.8.2 Land Use and Biodiversity 61915.7.8.3 Human Health 620xxii Contents15.7.9 Economy of Lipid Biofuels 62015.8 BtL Fuels 62115.8.1 Feedstock Production 62115.8.2 BtL Production 62215.8.2.1 Gasification 62215.8.2.2 Gas Cleaning 62315.8.2.3 Synthesis Process 62315.8.3 Properties and Emissions of BtL Fuels 62415.9 Biomethane 62415.9.1 Feedstock Production 62415.9.2 Biomethane Production 62515.9.2.1 Digestion Process 62515.9.2.2 Digestion Types 62615.9.2.3 Biogas Purification 62715.9.3 Properties and Use of Biomethane 62715.9.4 Technology Applications of Biomethane 62715.9.4.1 Infrastructure Requirements for Biomethane 62715.9.4.2 Vehicle Technologies for Biomethane 62815.9.5 Standardization of Biomethane 62815.9.6 Biomethane Emissions 62915.9.6.1 Greenhouse Gas Emissions 62915.9.6.2 Toxic Exhaust Emissions 62915.9.7 Other Environmental Effects of Biomethane 62915.9.8 Economy of Biomethane 63015.10 Biohydrogen 63015.10.1 Biohydrogen Processing 63015.10.2 Use of Biohydrogen 63215.11 Biomass Conversion Inhibitors and in situ Detoxification 63215.11.1 Introduction to Inhibitors 63215.11.2 Inhibitory Compounds Derived from Biomass Pretreatment 63315.11.3 Inhibitory Effects 63515.11.4 Removal of Inhibitors 63615.11.5 Inhibitor Tolerant Strain Development 63715.11.6 Inhibitor Conversion Pathways 63815.11.7 Molecular Mechanism of in situ Detoxification 63915.12 Policies in Biofuel 64215.13 Strategies for New Vehicle Technologies 64315.14 Market Barriers of Biofuels 644About the Authors 647Index 649