Professor Ian Colbeck leads the Aerosol Science Group in the Department of Biological Sciences, and is Director of the Centre for Environment and Society at the University of Essex. Contributors to the book:Professor Jay TurnerProfessor Ari LaaksonenDr Charles ClementDr Mihalis LazardisDr Irena GrgicDr David ToppingDr A. R. MackenzieDr Urs BaltenspergerDr Markus FurgerDr Kari Lehtinen

• List of Contributors ixPreface xi1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Atmospheric Aerosols 1Jay Turner and Ian Colbeck1.1 Introduction 11.2 Ambient aerosol size distributions 31.2.1 Idealised size distributions of aerosol number and mass 31.2.2 Size distribution measurements 61.2.3 Dynamics of atmospheric aerosol size distributions 81.2.4 Features of selected ambient aerosol size distributions 111.3 Major chemical components of ambient fine particulate matter 151.4 Aerosol composition as a function of size 211.5 Summary and conclusions 22References 252 Nucleation 31Ari Laaksonen and Kari E.J. Lehtinen2.1 Introduction 312.2 Nucleation kinetics 312.2.1 One-component systems 312.2.2 Binary systems 342.3 Nucleation thermodynamics 362.3.1 One-component systems 362.3.2 The classical theory 392.3.3 Multicomponent systems 402.4 The nucleation theorem 412.4.1 Scaling properties of critical clusters 422.4.2 An application to atmospheric nucleation 45References 463 Mass Transfer to Aerosols 49Charles F. Clement3.1 Introduction 493.1.1 Equilibration between aerosol and gas 513.2 Transfer to a particle 523.2.1 Molecular motion 523.2.2 Motion in gases: kinetic theory 533.2.3 Diffusion 553.2.4 Diffusion to an aerosol particle 563.2.5 Combined diffusive and kinetic model 563.2.6 Fuchs mass transfer model 573.2.7 Heat and mass transfer 583.2.8 Multicomponent droplets and binary growth 643.2.9 Chemical model framework 653.2.10 Kinetic coefficients 673.3 Transfer to an aerosol 683.3.1 Aerosol description 683.3.2 Mean field approximation 703.3.3 Growth equations 733.3.4 Empirical atmospheric timescales 753.3.5 Redistributive processes 773.3.6 Nucleation mode mass transfer 793.3.7 Source terms 81Appendix: water data 83Nomenclature 83References 854 Organic Aerosols 91Mihalis Lazaridis4.1 Introduction 914.2 Carbon-containing aerosols and their sources 934.2.1 Elemental carbon – primary organic carbon 934.2.2 Secondary organic matter formation (secondary organic carbon) 954.2.3 Biological aerosols 964.2.4 Biogenic aerosols 984.2.5 Modelling biogenic aerosol formation 994.2.6 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1004.2.7 Emission inventories of primary organic aerosols and gaseous precursors 1024.3 Atmospheric chemistry of organic aerosols – field studies 1024.3.1 Measurements of carbonaceous aerosols 1024.3.2 Organic compounds – source apportionment 1044.4 Carbonaceous aerosols at urban/rural environments 1054.5 Summary 109References 1105 Metals in Aerosols 117Irena Grgić5.1 Introduction 1175.2 Physico-chemical characteristics of metals in aerosols 1185.2.1 Size distribution 1185.2.2 Chemical speciation 1225.3 Reactivity of transition metals 1285.3.1 Photochemical/chemical cycling 1285.3.2 Interactions of transition metals with S(IV) species 129References 1336 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Systems 141David Topping6.1 Introduction 1416.2 Equilibrium 1416.2.1 The chemical potential 1436.2.2 Activity 1456.3 Mixed solvent systems–a brief outline 1476.4 Aqueous systems 1486.4.1 Water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1486.5 General aqueous thermodynamic equilibrium models for atmospheric aerosols 1526.6 Inorganic systems 1536.6 1 Activity coefficients 1536.6.2 Bulk inorganic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1556.7 Organic systems 1576.7.1 Activity coefficients 1576.7.2 Bulk organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1616.8 Mixed inorganic/organic systems 1646.8.1 Activity coefficients – coupled thermodynamics 1646.8.2 Activity coefficients – uncoupled thermodynamics 1666.8.3 Bulk mixed inorganic/organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1666.8.4 Deliquescence 1696.9 Temperature-dependent equilibrium 1716.9 1 Deliquescence 1716.9.2 Gas-to-particle partitioning 1736.9.3 Activity 1746.10 The influence of curvature 1756.10.1 The Kelvin effect 1756.10.2 The Köhler equation – describing the equilibrium between a curved particle and its humid environment: basic equilibrium considerations 177References 1817 Stratospheric Chemistry: Aerosols and the Ozone Layer 193Rob MacKenzie7.1 Introduction 1937.2 General properties of the stratospheric aerosol layer 1957.3 General stratospheric chemistry 1977.3.1 Catalysed ozone loss 1977.3.2 Initiation, null cycles, and termination of stratospheric chain reactions 1997.4 Heterogeneous stratospheric chemistry 2007.5 Polar stratospheric clouds and the ‘ozone hole’ 2017.6 Volcanic aerosol 2037.7 Meteoritic aerosol 2077.8 Interactions between stratospheric chemistry and climate 208References 2108 Aerosol Chemistry in Remote Locations 217Urs Baltensperger and Markus Furger8.1 Introduction 2178.1.1 Definition of ‘remote locations’ 2178.1.2 Aerosol measurement and monitoring 2198.1.3 Processes and mechanisms 2208.2 Observations 2248.2.1 Oceans and marine locations 2258.2.2 Antarctica 2288.2.3 Arctic 2328.2.4 Tropical forests 2358.2.5 Boreal forests 2388.2.6 High elevation and free troposphere 2398.3 Summary 242References 244Index 253The colour plate section follows page 228

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Professor Ian Colbeck leads the Aerosol Science Group in the Department of Biological Sciences, and is Director of the Centre for Environment and Society at the University of Essex. Contributors to the book:Professor Jay TurnerProfessor Ari LaaksonenDr Charles ClementDr Mihalis LazardisDr Irena GrgicDr David ToppingDr A. R. MackenzieDr Urs BaltenspergerDr Markus FurgerDr Kari Lehtinen

• List of Contributors ixPreface xi1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Atmospheric Aerosols 1Jay Turner and Ian Colbeck1.1 Introduction 11.2 Ambient aerosol size distributions 31.2.1 Idealised size distributions of aerosol number and mass 31.2.2 Size distribution measurements 61.2.3 Dynamics of atmospheric aerosol size distributions 81.2.4 Features of selected ambient aerosol size distributions 111.3 Major chemical components of ambient fine particulate matter 151.4 Aerosol composition as a function of size 211.5 Summary and conclusions 22References 252 Nucleation 31Ari Laaksonen and Kari E.J. Lehtinen2.1 Introduction 312.2 Nucleation kinetics 312.2.1 One-component systems 312.2.2 Binary systems 342.3 Nucleation thermodynamics 362.3.1 One-component systems 362.3.2 The classical theory 392.3.3 Multicomponent systems 402.4 The nucleation theorem 412.4.1 Scaling properties of critical clusters 422.4.2 An application to atmospheric nucleation 45References 463 Mass Transfer to Aerosols 49Charles F. Clement3.1 Introduction 493.1.1 Equilibration between aerosol and gas 513.2 Transfer to a particle 523.2.1 Molecular motion 523.2.2 Motion in gases: kinetic theory 533.2.3 Diffusion 553.2.4 Diffusion to an aerosol particle 563.2.5 Combined diffusive and kinetic model 563.2.6 Fuchs mass transfer model 573.2.7 Heat and mass transfer 583.2.8 Multicomponent droplets and binary growth 643.2.9 Chemical model framework 653.2.10 Kinetic coefficients 673.3 Transfer to an aerosol 683.3.1 Aerosol description 683.3.2 Mean field approximation 703.3.3 Growth equations 733.3.4 Empirical atmospheric timescales 753.3.5 Redistributive processes 773.3.6 Nucleation mode mass transfer 793.3.7 Source terms 81Appendix: water data 83Nomenclature 83References 854 Organic Aerosols 91Mihalis Lazaridis4.1 Introduction 914.2 Carbon-containing aerosols and their sources 934.2.1 Elemental carbon – primary organic carbon 934.2.2 Secondary organic matter formation (secondary organic carbon) 954.2.3 Biological aerosols 964.2.4 Biogenic aerosols 984.2.5 Modelling biogenic aerosol formation 994.2.6 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1004.2.7 Emission inventories of primary organic aerosols and gaseous precursors 1024.3 Atmospheric chemistry of organic aerosols – field studies 1024.3.1 Measurements of carbonaceous aerosols 1024.3.2 Organic compounds – source apportionment 1044.4 Carbonaceous aerosols at urban/rural environments 1054.5 Summary 109References 1105 Metals in Aerosols 117Irena Grgić5.1 Introduction 1175.2 Physico-chemical characteristics of metals in aerosols 1185.2.1 Size distribution 1185.2.2 Chemical speciation 1225.3 Reactivity of transition metals 1285.3.1 Photochemical/chemical cycling 1285.3.2 Interactions of transition metals with S(IV) species 129References 1336 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Systems 141David Topping6.1 Introduction 1416.2 Equilibrium 1416.2.1 The chemical potential 1436.2.2 Activity 1456.3 Mixed solvent systems–a brief outline 1476.4 Aqueous systems 1486.4.1 Water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1486.5 General aqueous thermodynamic equilibrium models for atmospheric aerosols 1526.6 Inorganic systems 1536.6 1 Activity coefficients 1536.6.2 Bulk inorganic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1556.7 Organic systems 1576.7.1 Activity coefficients 1576.7.2 Bulk organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1616.8 Mixed inorganic/organic systems 1646.8.1 Activity coefficients – coupled thermodynamics 1646.8.2 Activity coefficients – uncoupled thermodynamics 1666.8.3 Bulk mixed inorganic/organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1666.8.4 Deliquescence 1696.9 Temperature-dependent equilibrium 1716.9 1 Deliquescence 1716.9.2 Gas-to-particle partitioning 1736.9.3 Activity 1746.10 The influence of curvature 1756.10.1 The Kelvin effect 1756.10.2 The Köhler equation – describing the equilibrium between a curved particle and its humid environment: basic equilibrium considerations 177References 1817 Stratospheric Chemistry: Aerosols and the Ozone Layer 193Rob MacKenzie7.1 Introduction 1937.2 General properties of the stratospheric aerosol layer 1957.3 General stratospheric chemistry 1977.3.1 Catalysed ozone loss 1977.3.2 Initiation, null cycles, and termination of stratospheric chain reactions 1997.4 Heterogeneous stratospheric chemistry 2007.5 Polar stratospheric clouds and the ‘ozone hole’ 2017.6 Volcanic aerosol 2037.7 Meteoritic aerosol 2077.8 Interactions between stratospheric chemistry and climate 208References 2108 Aerosol Chemistry in Remote Locations 217Urs Baltensperger and Markus Furger8.1 Introduction 2178.1.1 Definition of ‘remote locations’ 2178.1.2 Aerosol measurement and monitoring 2198.1.3 Processes and mechanisms 2208.2 Observations 2248.2.1 Oceans and marine locations 2258.2.2 Antarctica 2288.2.3 Arctic 2328.2.4 Tropical forests 2358.2.5 Boreal forests 2388.2.6 High elevation and free troposphere 2398.3 Summary 242References 244Index 253The colour plate section follows page 228

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Professor Ian Colbeck leads the Aerosol Science Group in the Department of Biological Sciences, and is Director of the Centre for Environment and Society at the University of Essex. Contributors to the book:Professor Jay TurnerProfessor Ari LaaksonenDr Charles ClementDr Mihalis LazardisDr Irena GrgicDr David ToppingDr A. R. MackenzieDr Urs BaltenspergerDr Markus FurgerDr Kari Lehtinen

• List of Contributors ixPreface xi1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Atmospheric Aerosols 1Jay Turner and Ian Colbeck1.1 Introduction 11.2 Ambient aerosol size distributions 31.2.1 Idealised size distributions of aerosol number and mass 31.2.2 Size distribution measurements 61.2.3 Dynamics of atmospheric aerosol size distributions 81.2.4 Features of selected ambient aerosol size distributions 111.3 Major chemical components of ambient fine particulate matter 151.4 Aerosol composition as a function of size 211.5 Summary and conclusions 22References 252 Nucleation 31Ari Laaksonen and Kari E.J. Lehtinen2.1 Introduction 312.2 Nucleation kinetics 312.2.1 One-component systems 312.2.2 Binary systems 342.3 Nucleation thermodynamics 362.3.1 One-component systems 362.3.2 The classical theory 392.3.3 Multicomponent systems 402.4 The nucleation theorem 412.4.1 Scaling properties of critical clusters 422.4.2 An application to atmospheric nucleation 45References 463 Mass Transfer to Aerosols 49Charles F. Clement3.1 Introduction 493.1.1 Equilibration between aerosol and gas 513.2 Transfer to a particle 523.2.1 Molecular motion 523.2.2 Motion in gases: kinetic theory 533.2.3 Diffusion 553.2.4 Diffusion to an aerosol particle 563.2.5 Combined diffusive and kinetic model 563.2.6 Fuchs mass transfer model 573.2.7 Heat and mass transfer 583.2.8 Multicomponent droplets and binary growth 643.2.9 Chemical model framework 653.2.10 Kinetic coefficients 673.3 Transfer to an aerosol 683.3.1 Aerosol description 683.3.2 Mean field approximation 703.3.3 Growth equations 733.3.4 Empirical atmospheric timescales 753.3.5 Redistributive processes 773.3.6 Nucleation mode mass transfer 793.3.7 Source terms 81Appendix: water data 83Nomenclature 83References 854 Organic Aerosols 91Mihalis Lazaridis4.1 Introduction 914.2 Carbon-containing aerosols and their sources 934.2.1 Elemental carbon – primary organic carbon 934.2.2 Secondary organic matter formation (secondary organic carbon) 954.2.3 Biological aerosols 964.2.4 Biogenic aerosols 984.2.5 Modelling biogenic aerosol formation 994.2.6 Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons 1004.2.7 Emission inventories of primary organic aerosols and gaseous precursors 1024.3 Atmospheric chemistry of organic aerosols – field studies 1024.3.1 Measurements of carbonaceous aerosols 1024.3.2 Organic compounds – source apportionment 1044.4 Carbonaceous aerosols at urban/rural environments 1054.5 Summary 109References 1105 Metals in Aerosols 117Irena Grgić5.1 Introduction 1175.2 Physico-chemical characteristics of metals in aerosols 1185.2.1 Size distribution 1185.2.2 Chemical speciation 1225.3 Reactivity of transition metals 1285.3.1 Photochemical/chemical cycling 1285.3.2 Interactions of transition metals with S(IV) species 129References 1336 Thermodynamics of Aqueous Systems 141David Topping6.1 Introduction 1416.2 Equilibrium 1416.2.1 The chemical potential 1436.2.2 Activity 1456.3 Mixed solvent systems–a brief outline 1476.4 Aqueous systems 1486.4.1 Water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1486.5 General aqueous thermodynamic equilibrium models for atmospheric aerosols 1526.6 Inorganic systems 1536.6 1 Activity coefficients 1536.6.2 Bulk inorganic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1556.7 Organic systems 1576.7.1 Activity coefficients 1576.7.2 Bulk organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1616.8 Mixed inorganic/organic systems 1646.8.1 Activity coefficients – coupled thermodynamics 1646.8.2 Activity coefficients – uncoupled thermodynamics 1666.8.3 Bulk mixed inorganic/organic contributions to particulate water content in the regime subsaturated with respect to water vapour 1666.8.4 Deliquescence 1696.9 Temperature-dependent equilibrium 1716.9 1 Deliquescence 1716.9.2 Gas-to-particle partitioning 1736.9.3 Activity 1746.10 The influence of curvature 1756.10.1 The Kelvin effect 1756.10.2 The Köhler equation – describing the equilibrium between a curved particle and its humid environment: basic equilibrium considerations 177References 1817 Stratospheric Chemistry: Aerosols and the Ozone Layer 193Rob MacKenzie7.1 Introduction 1937.2 General properties of the stratospheric aerosol layer 1957.3 General stratospheric chemistry 1977.3.1 Catalysed ozone loss 1977.3.2 Initiation, null cycles, and termination of stratospheric chain reactions 1997.4 Heterogeneous stratospheric chemistry 2007.5 Polar stratospheric clouds and the ‘ozone hole’ 2017.6 Volcanic aerosol 2037.7 Meteoritic aerosol 2077.8 Interactions between stratospheric chemistry and climate 208References 2108 Aerosol Chemistry in Remote Locations 217Urs Baltensperger and Markus Furger8.1 Introduction 2178.1.1 Definition of ‘remote locations’ 2178.1.2 Aerosol measurement and monitoring 2198.1.3 Processes and mechanisms 2208.2 Observations 2248.2.1 Oceans and marine locations 2258.2.2 Antarctica 2288.2.3 Arctic 2328.2.4 Tropical forests 2358.2.5 Boreal forests 2388.2.6 High elevation and free troposphere 2398.3 Summary 242References 244Index 253The colour plate section follows page 228

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