Santosh K. Kurinec is a Professor of Electrical & Microelectronic Engineering at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), NY, USA. She received her PhD degree in Physics from the University of Delhi, India. She worked as postdoc at University of Florida and later faculty at Florida A&M/Florida State University College of Engineering prior to joining RIT. She is a Fellow of IEEE, received the 2012 IEEE Technical Field Award and was inducted in the International Women in Technology (WiTi) Hall of Fame in 2018. Her current research activities include photovoltaics, advanced integrated circuit materials, devices and processes.

• Preface xxiPart 1 Silicon Photovoltaics 11 Emergence of Continuous Czochralski (CCZ) Growth for Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaics 3Santosh K. Kurinec, Charles Bopp and Han Xu1.1 Introduction 41.1.1 The Czochralski (CZ) Process 51.1.2 Continuous Czochralski Process (CCZ) 111.2 Continuous Czochralski Process Implementations 131.3 Solar Cells Fabricated Using CCZ Ingots 151.3.1 n-Type Mono-Si High-Efficiency Cells 151.3.2 Gallium-Doped p-Type Silicon Solar Cells 171.4 Conclusions 19References 192 Materials Chemistry and Physics for Low-Cost Silicon Photovoltaics 23Tingting Jiang and George Z. Chen2.1 Introduction 242.2 Crystalline Silicon in Traditional/Classic Solar Cells 262.2.1 Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cell 262.2.2 Efficiency Loss in Silicon Solar Cell 292.2.3 New Strategies for the Silicon Solar Cell 322.3 Low-Cost Crystalline Silicon 332.3.1 Metallurgical Silicon 332.3.2 Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 332.3.2.1 Properties of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 342.3.2.2 Production of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 352.3.2.3 Development of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon Solar Cells 362.3.3 High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 372.3.3.1 Crystal Growth 372.3.3.2 Material Properties of High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 392.3.3.3 Solar Cell Based on High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 402.4 Advanced p-Type Silicon—in Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) 412.4.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cells 412.4.1.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cell (PESC) 412.4.1.2 Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell 422.4.1.3 Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally Diffused Solar Cells 432.4.1.4 Passivated Emitter, Rear Totally Diffused Solar Cells 442.4.2 Surface Passivation 452.5 Advanced n-Type Silicon 462.5.1 Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) Solar Cell 472.5.2 Silicon Heterojunction (SHJ) Solar Cells 502.5.2.1 The Device Structure and the Advantages of HIT Solar Cells 512.5.2.2 Strategies of Achieving High-Efficiency HIT Solar Cell 522.6 Conclusion 53References 543 Recycling Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules 61Pablo Dias and Hugo Veit3.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 623.2 Photovoltaic Modules 653.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Modules 663.3 Recyclability of Waste Photovoltaic Modules 693.3.1 Frame 703.3.2 Superstrate (Front Glass) 713.3.3 Metallic Filaments (Busbars) 723.3.4 Photovoltaic Cell 733.3.5 Polymers 743.3.6 Recyclability Summary 753.4 Separation and Recovery of Materials The Recycling Process 763.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Processes 763.4.1.1 Shredding 773.4.1.2 Sieving 773.4.1.3 Density Separation 793.4.1.4 Manual Separation 823.4.1.5 Electrostatic Separation 823.4.2 Thermal Processes—Polymers 843.4.3 Separation Using Organic Solvents 863.4.4 Pyrometallurgy 903.4.5 Hydrometallurgy 903.4.6 Electrometallurgy 933.5 New Trends in the Recycling Processes 94References 98Part 2 Emerging Photovoltaic Materials 1034 Photovoltaics in Ferroelectric Materials Origin, Challenges and Opportunities 105Charles Paillard, Grégory Geneste, Laurent Bellaiche, Jens Kreisel, Marvin Alexe and Brahim Dkhil4.1 Physics of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectrics 1064.1.1 Conventional Photovoltaic Technologies 1064.1.1.1 The p–n Junction 1064.1.1.2 The Shockley–Queisser Limit 1094.1.2 Mechanisms of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectric Materials 1104.1.2.1 The Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1104.1.2.2 Barrier Effects 1184.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Photoferroelectrics 1234.2.1 To Switch or not to Switch 1244.2.1.1 Switchability 1244.2.1.2 Influence of Defects 1254.2.2 The Bandgap Problem 1274.2.3 Application of Light-Induced Effects in Ferroelectrics Beyond Solar Cells 1294.2.3.1 Photovoltaics and ICTs 1304.2.3.2 Photo-Induced Strain Toward Optically Controlled Actuators 1304.2.3.3 Photochemistry for Clean Energy and Environment 1314.3 Conclusions 133Acknowledgements 134References 1345 Tin-Based Novel Cubic Chalcogenides A New Paradigm for Photovoltaic Research 141Sajid Ur Rehman, Faheem K. Butt, Zeeshan Tariq and Chuanbo Li5.1 Introduction 1425.2 Cubic Tin Sulfide (π-SnS) 1455.2.1 Application π-SnS in Solar Cells 1455.2.2 Application of π-SnS in Optical Devices 1475.3 Cubic Tin Selenide (π-SnSe) 1535.3.1 Application of π-SnSe in Solar Cells 1535.3.2 Application of π-SnSe in Optical Devices 1545.4 Cubic Tin Telluride (π-SnTe) 1575.4.1 Application of π-SnTe in Optical Devices 1585.5 Conclusion 160Acknowledgement 160References 1616 Insights into the Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Activity of Cu-, Al-, and Tm-Doped TiO2 165Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Javier Navas, Elisa I. Martín, Teresa Aguilar, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Desireé de los Santos, Rodrigo Alcántara and Concha Fernández-Lorenzo6.1 Introduction 1666.2 Materials and Methods 1676.2.1 Experimental 1676.2.2 Computational Framework 1696.3 Cu-TiO2 Doping 1706.3.1 Photovoltaics of the DSSCs 1756.4 Al-TiO2 Doping 1776.5 Tm-TiO2 Doping 1816.5.1 Photovoltaic Characterization 1846.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity 1866.6 Conclusions 187References 1897 Theory of the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects in Multiferroics 195Bruno Mettout and Pierre Tolédano7.1 Insufficiency of the Traditional Approach to the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1967.2 Theoretical Approach to the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects 1977.3 Response Functions under Linearly Polarized Light 1997.3.1 Mean Symmetry of the Light Beam 1997.3.2 Response Functions 2027.3.2.1 Achiral and Nonmagnetic Materials 2027.3.2.2 Chiral and Magnetic Materials 2057.4 Selection Procedures 2067.4.1 External Selection 2067.4.2 Internal Selection 2087.5 Application of the Theory to the Photovoltaic and Photo-Induced Effects in LiNbO3 2107.5.1 Second-Order Photovoltaic Effect 2107.5.2 Photovoltaic Effects in LiNbO3 2127.5.3 Optical Rectification, Photomagnetic, and Photo-Toroidal First-Order Effects 2157.5.4 First-Order Photoelastic and Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2167.6 Magnetoelectric, Photovoltaic, and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2187.6.1 Magnetoelectric Effects in KBiFe2O5 in Absence of Illumination 2187.6.2 Photovoltaic and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2207.7 Photo-Magnetoelectric and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2247.7.1 Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2247.7.2 Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2267.7.3 Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2277.8 Photorefractive and Photo-Hall Effects in Tungsten Bronzes 2297.8.1 The Photorefractive Effect 2307.8.2 The Photo-Hall Effect 2317.9 Summary and Conclusion 234Acknowledgement 235References 2358 Multication Transparent Conducting Oxides: Tunable Materials for Photovoltaic Applications 239Peediyekkal Jayaram8.1 Introduction 2398.2 Multication Film Growth and Analysis 2438.3 Structural Analysis 2448.4 Raman Spectra 2478.5 Surface Morphology (AFM) 2488.6 Optical Properties UV-Vis Transmittance Spectra 2488.7 Electrical Properties 2538.8 Conclusion 257References 258Part 3 Perovskite Solar Cells 2619 Perovskite Solar Cells Promises and Challenges 263Qiong Wang and Antonio Abate9.1 The Scientific and Technological Background 2649.1.1 The Share of Silicon Solar Cells and Thin Film Solar Cells in Photovoltaic Market 2649.1.2 The Bottleneck of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Organic Solar Cells 2669.1.3 From a Cost-Effective Alternative to the Highly Efficient Solution 2699.2 The Fast Development of PSCs 2709.2.1 The Fundamental Optoelectronic Properties of Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskite Materials 2719.2.1.1 Optical Properties 2729.2.1.2 Electronic Properties 2769.2.2 Composition Adjustment of Perovskite 2889.2.2.1 Mixed Halides 2889.2.2.2 Multi-Cations 2929.2.2.3 Phase Segregation 2979.2.3 Versatile Deposition Methods of Perovskite Film 2979.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Methods 2989.2.3.2 Vapor Deposition Methods 3069.2.4 Charge Selective Contacts in PSCs 3089.2.4.1 Electron Selective Contacts 3099.2.4.2 Hole Selective Contacts 3119.2.5 Evaluation of PSCs 3159.2.5.1 J–V curve 3159.2.5.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 3169.2.6 The Systematic Understanding of PSCs 3189.2.6.1 Moisture Vulnerability of Perovskite Materials 3189.2.6.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries 3189.2.6.3 Ion Migration and Hysteresis 3229.2.6.4 Interface/Bulk Defects and Passivation 3249.2.7 PSCs in a Tandem 3289.2.7.1 Structures of Perovskite Tandem Cells 3289.2.7.2 Transparent Contacts and Recombination Contacts 3309.3 Remaining Challenges and Prospects of PSCs 3319.3.1 Lead-Free PSCs 3319.3.2 Stable and Cheap Contact Materials 3369.3.3 Strategies toward Stable PSCs 3389.3.3.1 Against Moisture 3389.3.3.2 Against UV Light 3399.3.3.3 Against Heat 3419.3.4 Large-Area Production of Highly Efficient PSCs 342References 34510 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite, CH3NH3PbI3 Modifications in Pb Sites from Experimental and Theoretical Perspectives 357Javier Navas, Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Jose Carlos Piñero, Teresa Aguilar, Elisa I. Martín, Rodrigo Alcántara, Concha Fernández-Lorenzo and Joaquin Martín-Calleja10.1 Introduction 35810.2 Low Doping on Pb Sites 35910.2.1 Materials and Methods 35910.2.1.1 Experimental 35910.2.1.2 Computational Details 36110.2.2 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 36210.2.2.1 XRD 36210.2.2.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 36510.2.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 36610.2.2.4 SEM and Cathodoluminescence 36910.2.3 Theoretical Analysis 37110.2.3.1 Structure and Local Geometry 37110.2.3.2 DOS and PDOS Analysis 37210.2.3.3 ELF Analysis 37610.3 High Doping on Pb Sites 37810.3.1 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 37910.3.1.1 XRD 37910.3.1.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 38410.3.1.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 38610.3.2 Theoretical Analysis 38810.3.2.1 Structure and Local Geometry 38810.3.2.2 Electron Localization Function 39110.3.2.3 DOS and PDOS Analysis 39310.4 Conclusions 397References 397Part 4 Organic Solar Cells 40111 Increasing the Dielectric Constant of Organic Materials for Photovoltaics 403Viktor Ivasyshyn, Gang Ye, Sylvia Rousseva, Jan C. Hummelen and Ryan C. Chiechi11.1 Introduction 40411.2 Increasing the Dielectric Constant 41511.2.1 Methodology of Dielectric Constant Measurement 41511.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Materials 42111.2.2.1 High Dielectric Constant Donor Materials 42211.2.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Acceptor Materials 42911.3 Conclusions and Outlook 435References 43612 Recent Developments in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Potential Applications 443Devender Singh, Raman Kumar Saini and Shri Bhagwan12.1 Solar Energy and Solar Cells 44412.2 Types of Solar Cells 44512.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44512.2.1.1 Silicon Single-Crystal-Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.3 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44712.2.2.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)-Based Solar Cells 44812.2.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2, or CIS)- Based Solar Cells 44812.2.3 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44912.2.3.1 Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide (CZTS) and (Its Derivatives) CZTSSe and CZTSe Solar Cells 44912.2.3.2 Organic Solar Cells 44912.2.3.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 45012.2.3.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cell 45012.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 45012.4 Operation of DSSCs 45212.4.1 Working System of DSSCs 45412.5 Fabrication of DSSCs 45512.5.1 Substrate Selection and Preparation 45612.5.1.1 Cutting of the Substrate 45612.5.1.2 Cleaning of the Substrate 45612.5.1.3 Masking of the Substrate 45612.5.2 Film Deposition on Substrate 45612.5.2.1 Preparation of TiO2 Paste 45912.5.2.2 Depositing the TiO2 Layer on the Glass Plate 46012.5.3 Dye Impregnation on the Electrode 46012.5.4 Preparation of Counter Electrode 46012.6 Various Materials Used as Essential Components of DSSCs 46112.6.1 Transparent Conducting Substrate 46112.6.2 Photoelectrodes 46212.6.2.1 Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 46212.6.2.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 46312.6.2.3 Niobium Pentoxide (Nb2O5) 46412.6.2.4 Ternary Photoelectrode Materials 46512.6.2.5 Other Metal Oxides 46512.6.3 Photosensitizers 46612.6.3.1 Metal Complexes as Sensitizers 46712.6.4 Electrolytes 47112.6.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes 47212.6.4.2 Solid-State Electrolytes 47312.6.4.3 Quasi-Solid Electrolyte 47412.6.5 Counter Electrodes 47412.6.5.1 Platinized Conducting Glass 47412.6.5.2 Carbon Materials 47412.6.5.3 Conducting Polymers 47512.7 Advantages and Applications of DSSC 47512.8 Future Prospect of DSSC 47612.9 Conclusions 476References 47713 Heterojunction Energetics and Open-Circuit Voltages of Organic Photovoltaic Cells 487Peicheng Li and Zheng-Hong Lu13.1 Introduction 48713.2 Ultraviolet Photoemission Spectroscopy 49013.3 Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interfaces 49313.3.1 Schottky Barrier, Interfacial Dipole, and Slope Parameter 49313.3.2 Interfacial Dipole Theory 49513.3.3 Mapping Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interface 49713.4 Open-Circuit Voltage of Organic Photovoltaic Cell 49913.4.1 Two-Diode Model 49913.4.2 Quasi Fermi Level Model 50113.4.3 Chemical Equilibrium Model 50313.4.4 Kinetic Hopping Model 504References 50814 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposited Materials and Organic Semiconductors in Photovoltaic Devices 511Andrey Kosarev, Ismael Cosme, Svetlana Mansurova, Dmitriy Andronikov, Alexey Abramov and Eugeny Terukov14.1 Introduction 51214.2 Experimental 51314.2.1 Fabrication of PECVD Materials 51314.2.2 Fabrication of Organic Materials 51414.2.3 Configurations and Fabrication of Device Structures 51614.2.4 Characterization of Materials 51614.2.5 Characterization of Device Structures 52114.3 Material Results 52214.3.1 Structure and Composition 52214.3.2 Optical Properties 52614.3.3 Electrical Properties 52914.4 Results for Devices 53714.4.1 Devices Based on PECVD Materials 53714.4.2 Devices Based on Organic Materials 53814.4.3 Hybrid Devices Based on PECVD-Polymer Materials 54014.4.4 Hybrid Devices Using Crystalline Semicinductors, Non-Crystalline PECVD, and Organic Materials (HJT-OS Structures) 54314.5 Outlook 546Acknowledgment 546References 546Part 5 Nano-Photovoltaics 55115 Use of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Third-Generation Solar Cells 553LePing Yu, Munkhbayar Batmunkh, Cameron Shearer and Joseph G. Shapter15.1 Introduction 55415.1.1 Energy Issues and Potential Solutions 55415.1.2 Categories of Photovoltaic Devices and Their Development 55415.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 55615.3 Transparent Conducting Electrodes (TCEs) 55615.3.1 ITO and FTO 55615.3.2 CNTs for TCEs 55715.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 56315.4.1 CNTs-TCFs for DSSCs 56315.4.2 Semiconducting Layers 56515.4.2.1 Nanostructured TiO2 Materials 56515.4.2.2 Semiconducting Layers with CNTs 56615.4.3 Catalyst Layers 57015.4.3.1 Platinum (Pt) and Other Catalysts 57015.5 CNTs in Perovskite Solar Cells 57215.6 Carbon Nanotube–Silicon (CNT–Si) or Nanotube–Silicon Heterojunction (NSH) Solar Cells 57515.6.1 Working Mechanism 57515.6.2 Development of Si-CNT Devices 57615.6.3 Origin of Photocurrent 57715.6.4 Effect of the Number of CNT Walls 57815.6.5 Effect of the Electronic Type of CNTs 57915.6.6 Effect of CNT Alignment in the Electrode 57915.6.7 Effect of the Transmittance/Thickness of CNT Films 58015.6.8 Effect of Doping 58015.6.9 Intentional Addition of Silicon Oxide Layer 58115.6.10 Enhancement of Light Absorption 58215.6.11 Application of Conductive Polymers 58415.6.12 Discussion 58415.7 Outlook and Conclusion 585References 58616 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 611Xiaoli Zhao, Chengjie Xiang, Ming Huang, Mei Ding, Chuankun Jia and Lidong Sun16.1 Introduction 61216.2 Quantum Dots and Their Properties 61216.2.1 Fundamental Concepts 61216.2.2 Size-Dependent Quantum Confinement Effect 61316.2.3 Multiple Exciton Generation Effect 61416.2.4 The Kondo Effect 61616.2.5 Applications 61716.3 Synthetic Methods for Quantum Dots 61816.3.1 Hot Injection 61816.3.1.1 Theoretical Evaluation of Nucleation and Growth 61916.3.1.2 Influence Factors 62116.3.1.3 Features 62316.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 62416.3.2.1 Theoretical Evaluation of the CBD Method 62516.3.2.2 Influence Factors 62516.3.2.3 Features 62716.3.3 Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction 62816.3.3.1 Theoretical Evaluation of SILAR Method 62916.3.3.2 Influence Factors 63016.3.3.3 Features 63216.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 63316.4.1 Schottky Junction Solar Cells 63316.4.1.1 Device Structure 63316.4.1.2 Preparation Route 63516.4.1.3 Materials Selection 63516.4.1.4 Photovoltaic Performance 63616.4.2 Depleted Heterojunction Solar Cells 63716.4.2.1 Device Structure 63716.4.2.2 Preparation Route 63816.4.2.3 Materials Selection 63916.4.2.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64016.4.3 Quantum-Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells 64116.4.3.1 Device Structure 64116.4.3.2 Preparation Route 64216.4.3.3 Materials Selection 64316.4.3.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64416.4 Challenges and Perspectives 645References 64617 Near-Infrared Responsive Quantum Dot Photovoltaics Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives 659Ru Zhou, Jun Xu and Jinzhang Xu17.1 Introduction 66017.2 Physical and Chemical Properties 66217.2.1 Multiple Exciton Generation 66217.2.2 Quantum Size Effect 66317.2.3 Other Features 66417.3 Materials and Film Processing 66517.3.1 In Situ Strategy 66517.3.2 Ex Situ Strategy 66617.3.3 A Comparison between In Situ and Ex Situ 66717.4 NIR Responsive QDs and Photovoltaic Performance 66917.4.1 Binary Lead Chalcogenides 66917.4.2 Binary Silver Chalcogenides 67417.4.3 Ternary Indium-Based Chalcogenides 67617.4.4 Ternary and Quaternary Alloyed Compounds 67817.5 Strategies for Performance Enhancement 68217.5.1 Light Management 68217.5.1.1 Nanophotonic Structuring 68217.5.1.2 Plasmonic Enhancement 68317.5.2 Carrier Management 68417.5.2.1 Band Structure Tailoring 68417.5.2.2 Surface Engineering 68717.5.2.3 Charge Collection Optimizing 69217.6 New Concept Solar Cells 69217.6.1 Multiple-Junction CQD Solar Cells 69317.6.2 Flexible Solar Cells 69417.6.3 Semitransparent Solar Cells 69417.6.4 QD/Perovskite Hybrid Solar Cells 69617.7 Conclusions and Perspectives 699Acknowledgments 701References 701Part 6 Concentrator Photovoltaics and Analysis Models 71918 Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System 721Kok-Keong Chong, Chee-Woon Wong, Tiong-Keat Yew, Ming-Hui Tan and Woei-Chong Tan18.1 Introduction 72218.2 Primary Concentrator Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator 72218.2.1 Geometry of Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator (NIDC) 72318.2.2 Methodology of Designing NIDC Geometry 72618.2.3 Coordinate Transformation of Facet Mirror 72818.2.4 Computational Algorithm 73018.3 Secondary Concentrator    An Array of Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CCPC) Lenses 73318.4 Concentrator Photovoltaic Module 74018.5 Prototype of Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System (DACPV) 74218.6 Optical Efficiency of the CCPC Lens 74418.7 Experimental Study of Electrical Performance 75018.7.1 Current Measurement Circuit 75418.8 Cost Estimation of the Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System Using Two-Stage Non-Imaging Concentrators 75718.9 Conclusion 758Acknowledgments 759References 76019 Solar Radiation Analysis Model and PVsyst Simulation for Photovoltaic System Design 763Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua19.1 Introduction 76419.1.1 Solar Energy in Turkey 76419.1.2 Climate, Solar Energy Potential, and Electric Production in Erzincan 76619.2 Data Analysis Model for Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 76819.2.1 Horizontal Surface 76819.2.1.1 Daily Total Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.3 Momentary Total Solar Radiation 76919.2.1.4 Momentary Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation 76919.2.2 Calculating Solar Radiation Intensity on Inclined Surface 77019.2.2.1 Momentary Direct Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.2 Momentary Diffuse Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.3 Reflecting Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.2.4 Total Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.3 Data Analysis and Discussion 77119.3 PVsyst Simulation for the Solar Farm System Design 77719.3.1 Methodology 77719.3.2 Findings Obtained with PVsyst Simulation 78119.4 Conclusions 783References 784Index 787

Santosh K. Kurinec is a Professor of Electrical & Microelectronic Engineering at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), NY, USA. She received her PhD degree in Physics from the University of Delhi, India. She worked as postdoc at University of Florida and later faculty at Florida A&M/Florida State University College of Engineering prior to joining RIT. She is a Fellow of IEEE, received the 2012 IEEE Technical Field Award and was inducted in the International Women in Technology (WiTi) Hall of Fame in 2018. Her current research activities include photovoltaics, advanced integrated circuit materials, devices and processes.

• Preface xxiPart 1 Silicon Photovoltaics 11 Emergence of Continuous Czochralski (CCZ) Growth for Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaics 3Santosh K. Kurinec, Charles Bopp and Han Xu1.1 Introduction 41.1.1 The Czochralski (CZ) Process 51.1.2 Continuous Czochralski Process (CCZ) 111.2 Continuous Czochralski Process Implementations 131.3 Solar Cells Fabricated Using CCZ Ingots 151.3.1 n-Type Mono-Si High-Efficiency Cells 151.3.2 Gallium-Doped p-Type Silicon Solar Cells 171.4 Conclusions 19References 192 Materials Chemistry and Physics for Low-Cost Silicon Photovoltaics 23Tingting Jiang and George Z. Chen2.1 Introduction 242.2 Crystalline Silicon in Traditional/Classic Solar Cells 262.2.1 Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cell 262.2.2 Efficiency Loss in Silicon Solar Cell 292.2.3 New Strategies for the Silicon Solar Cell 322.3 Low-Cost Crystalline Silicon 332.3.1 Metallurgical Silicon 332.3.2 Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 332.3.2.1 Properties of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 342.3.2.2 Production of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 352.3.2.3 Development of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon Solar Cells 362.3.3 High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 372.3.3.1 Crystal Growth 372.3.3.2 Material Properties of High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 392.3.3.3 Solar Cell Based on High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 402.4 Advanced p-Type Silicon—in Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) 412.4.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cells 412.4.1.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cell (PESC) 412.4.1.2 Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell 422.4.1.3 Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally Diffused Solar Cells 432.4.1.4 Passivated Emitter, Rear Totally Diffused Solar Cells 442.4.2 Surface Passivation 452.5 Advanced n-Type Silicon 462.5.1 Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) Solar Cell 472.5.2 Silicon Heterojunction (SHJ) Solar Cells 502.5.2.1 The Device Structure and the Advantages of HIT Solar Cells 512.5.2.2 Strategies of Achieving High-Efficiency HIT Solar Cell 522.6 Conclusion 53References 543 Recycling Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules 61Pablo Dias and Hugo Veit3.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 623.2 Photovoltaic Modules 653.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Modules 663.3 Recyclability of Waste Photovoltaic Modules 693.3.1 Frame 703.3.2 Superstrate (Front Glass) 713.3.3 Metallic Filaments (Busbars) 723.3.4 Photovoltaic Cell 733.3.5 Polymers 743.3.6 Recyclability Summary 753.4 Separation and Recovery of Materials The Recycling Process 763.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Processes 763.4.1.1 Shredding 773.4.1.2 Sieving 773.4.1.3 Density Separation 793.4.1.4 Manual Separation 823.4.1.5 Electrostatic Separation 823.4.2 Thermal Processes—Polymers 843.4.3 Separation Using Organic Solvents 863.4.4 Pyrometallurgy 903.4.5 Hydrometallurgy 903.4.6 Electrometallurgy 933.5 New Trends in the Recycling Processes 94References 98Part 2 Emerging Photovoltaic Materials 1034 Photovoltaics in Ferroelectric Materials Origin, Challenges and Opportunities 105Charles Paillard, Grégory Geneste, Laurent Bellaiche, Jens Kreisel, Marvin Alexe and Brahim Dkhil4.1 Physics of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectrics 1064.1.1 Conventional Photovoltaic Technologies 1064.1.1.1 The p–n Junction 1064.1.1.2 The Shockley–Queisser Limit 1094.1.2 Mechanisms of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectric Materials 1104.1.2.1 The Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1104.1.2.2 Barrier Effects 1184.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Photoferroelectrics 1234.2.1 To Switch or not to Switch 1244.2.1.1 Switchability 1244.2.1.2 Influence of Defects 1254.2.2 The Bandgap Problem 1274.2.3 Application of Light-Induced Effects in Ferroelectrics Beyond Solar Cells 1294.2.3.1 Photovoltaics and ICTs 1304.2.3.2 Photo-Induced Strain Toward Optically Controlled Actuators 1304.2.3.3 Photochemistry for Clean Energy and Environment 1314.3 Conclusions 133Acknowledgements 134References 1345 Tin-Based Novel Cubic Chalcogenides A New Paradigm for Photovoltaic Research 141Sajid Ur Rehman, Faheem K. Butt, Zeeshan Tariq and Chuanbo Li5.1 Introduction 1425.2 Cubic Tin Sulfide (π-SnS) 1455.2.1 Application π-SnS in Solar Cells 1455.2.2 Application of π-SnS in Optical Devices 1475.3 Cubic Tin Selenide (π-SnSe) 1535.3.1 Application of π-SnSe in Solar Cells 1535.3.2 Application of π-SnSe in Optical Devices 1545.4 Cubic Tin Telluride (π-SnTe) 1575.4.1 Application of π-SnTe in Optical Devices 1585.5 Conclusion 160Acknowledgement 160References 1616 Insights into the Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Activity of Cu-, Al-, and Tm-Doped TiO2 165Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Javier Navas, Elisa I. Martín, Teresa Aguilar, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Desireé de los Santos, Rodrigo Alcántara and Concha Fernández-Lorenzo6.1 Introduction 1666.2 Materials and Methods 1676.2.1 Experimental 1676.2.2 Computational Framework 1696.3 Cu-TiO2 Doping 1706.3.1 Photovoltaics of the DSSCs 1756.4 Al-TiO2 Doping 1776.5 Tm-TiO2 Doping 1816.5.1 Photovoltaic Characterization 1846.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity 1866.6 Conclusions 187References 1897 Theory of the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects in Multiferroics 195Bruno Mettout and Pierre Tolédano7.1 Insufficiency of the Traditional Approach to the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1967.2 Theoretical Approach to the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects 1977.3 Response Functions under Linearly Polarized Light 1997.3.1 Mean Symmetry of the Light Beam 1997.3.2 Response Functions 2027.3.2.1 Achiral and Nonmagnetic Materials 2027.3.2.2 Chiral and Magnetic Materials 2057.4 Selection Procedures 2067.4.1 External Selection 2067.4.2 Internal Selection 2087.5 Application of the Theory to the Photovoltaic and Photo-Induced Effects in LiNbO3 2107.5.1 Second-Order Photovoltaic Effect 2107.5.2 Photovoltaic Effects in LiNbO3 2127.5.3 Optical Rectification, Photomagnetic, and Photo-Toroidal First-Order Effects 2157.5.4 First-Order Photoelastic and Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2167.6 Magnetoelectric, Photovoltaic, and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2187.6.1 Magnetoelectric Effects in KBiFe2O5 in Absence of Illumination 2187.6.2 Photovoltaic and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2207.7 Photo-Magnetoelectric and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2247.7.1 Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2247.7.2 Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2267.7.3 Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2277.8 Photorefractive and Photo-Hall Effects in Tungsten Bronzes 2297.8.1 The Photorefractive Effect 2307.8.2 The Photo-Hall Effect 2317.9 Summary and Conclusion 234Acknowledgement 235References 2358 Multication Transparent Conducting Oxides: Tunable Materials for Photovoltaic Applications 239Peediyekkal Jayaram8.1 Introduction 2398.2 Multication Film Growth and Analysis 2438.3 Structural Analysis 2448.4 Raman Spectra 2478.5 Surface Morphology (AFM) 2488.6 Optical Properties UV-Vis Transmittance Spectra 2488.7 Electrical Properties 2538.8 Conclusion 257References 258Part 3 Perovskite Solar Cells 2619 Perovskite Solar Cells Promises and Challenges 263Qiong Wang and Antonio Abate9.1 The Scientific and Technological Background 2649.1.1 The Share of Silicon Solar Cells and Thin Film Solar Cells in Photovoltaic Market 2649.1.2 The Bottleneck of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Organic Solar Cells 2669.1.3 From a Cost-Effective Alternative to the Highly Efficient Solution 2699.2 The Fast Development of PSCs 2709.2.1 The Fundamental Optoelectronic Properties of Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskite Materials 2719.2.1.1 Optical Properties 2729.2.1.2 Electronic Properties 2769.2.2 Composition Adjustment of Perovskite 2889.2.2.1 Mixed Halides 2889.2.2.2 Multi-Cations 2929.2.2.3 Phase Segregation 2979.2.3 Versatile Deposition Methods of Perovskite Film 2979.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Methods 2989.2.3.2 Vapor Deposition Methods 3069.2.4 Charge Selective Contacts in PSCs 3089.2.4.1 Electron Selective Contacts 3099.2.4.2 Hole Selective Contacts 3119.2.5 Evaluation of PSCs 3159.2.5.1 J–V curve 3159.2.5.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 3169.2.6 The Systematic Understanding of PSCs 3189.2.6.1 Moisture Vulnerability of Perovskite Materials 3189.2.6.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries 3189.2.6.3 Ion Migration and Hysteresis 3229.2.6.4 Interface/Bulk Defects and Passivation 3249.2.7 PSCs in a Tandem 3289.2.7.1 Structures of Perovskite Tandem Cells 3289.2.7.2 Transparent Contacts and Recombination Contacts 3309.3 Remaining Challenges and Prospects of PSCs 3319.3.1 Lead-Free PSCs 3319.3.2 Stable and Cheap Contact Materials 3369.3.3 Strategies toward Stable PSCs 3389.3.3.1 Against Moisture 3389.3.3.2 Against UV Light 3399.3.3.3 Against Heat 3419.3.4 Large-Area Production of Highly Efficient PSCs 342References 34510 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite, CH3NH3PbI3 Modifications in Pb Sites from Experimental and Theoretical Perspectives 357Javier Navas, Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Jose Carlos Piñero, Teresa Aguilar, Elisa I. Martín, Rodrigo Alcántara, Concha Fernández-Lorenzo and Joaquin Martín-Calleja10.1 Introduction 35810.2 Low Doping on Pb Sites 35910.2.1 Materials and Methods 35910.2.1.1 Experimental 35910.2.1.2 Computational Details 36110.2.2 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 36210.2.2.1 XRD 36210.2.2.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 36510.2.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 36610.2.2.4 SEM and Cathodoluminescence 36910.2.3 Theoretical Analysis 37110.2.3.1 Structure and Local Geometry 37110.2.3.2 DOS and PDOS Analysis 37210.2.3.3 ELF Analysis 37610.3 High Doping on Pb Sites 37810.3.1 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 37910.3.1.1 XRD 37910.3.1.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 38410.3.1.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 38610.3.2 Theoretical Analysis 38810.3.2.1 Structure and Local Geometry 38810.3.2.2 Electron Localization Function 39110.3.2.3 DOS and PDOS Analysis 39310.4 Conclusions 397References 397Part 4 Organic Solar Cells 40111 Increasing the Dielectric Constant of Organic Materials for Photovoltaics 403Viktor Ivasyshyn, Gang Ye, Sylvia Rousseva, Jan C. Hummelen and Ryan C. Chiechi11.1 Introduction 40411.2 Increasing the Dielectric Constant 41511.2.1 Methodology of Dielectric Constant Measurement 41511.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Materials 42111.2.2.1 High Dielectric Constant Donor Materials 42211.2.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Acceptor Materials 42911.3 Conclusions and Outlook 435References 43612 Recent Developments in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Potential Applications 443Devender Singh, Raman Kumar Saini and Shri Bhagwan12.1 Solar Energy and Solar Cells 44412.2 Types of Solar Cells 44512.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44512.2.1.1 Silicon Single-Crystal-Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.3 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44712.2.2.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)-Based Solar Cells 44812.2.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2, or CIS)- Based Solar Cells 44812.2.3 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44912.2.3.1 Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide (CZTS) and (Its Derivatives) CZTSSe and CZTSe Solar Cells 44912.2.3.2 Organic Solar Cells 44912.2.3.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 45012.2.3.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cell 45012.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 45012.4 Operation of DSSCs 45212.4.1 Working System of DSSCs 45412.5 Fabrication of DSSCs 45512.5.1 Substrate Selection and Preparation 45612.5.1.1 Cutting of the Substrate 45612.5.1.2 Cleaning of the Substrate 45612.5.1.3 Masking of the Substrate 45612.5.2 Film Deposition on Substrate 45612.5.2.1 Preparation of TiO2 Paste 45912.5.2.2 Depositing the TiO2 Layer on the Glass Plate 46012.5.3 Dye Impregnation on the Electrode 46012.5.4 Preparation of Counter Electrode 46012.6 Various Materials Used as Essential Components of DSSCs 46112.6.1 Transparent Conducting Substrate 46112.6.2 Photoelectrodes 46212.6.2.1 Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 46212.6.2.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 46312.6.2.3 Niobium Pentoxide (Nb2O5) 46412.6.2.4 Ternary Photoelectrode Materials 46512.6.2.5 Other Metal Oxides 46512.6.3 Photosensitizers 46612.6.3.1 Metal Complexes as Sensitizers 46712.6.4 Electrolytes 47112.6.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes 47212.6.4.2 Solid-State Electrolytes 47312.6.4.3 Quasi-Solid Electrolyte 47412.6.5 Counter Electrodes 47412.6.5.1 Platinized Conducting Glass 47412.6.5.2 Carbon Materials 47412.6.5.3 Conducting Polymers 47512.7 Advantages and Applications of DSSC 47512.8 Future Prospect of DSSC 47612.9 Conclusions 476References 47713 Heterojunction Energetics and Open-Circuit Voltages of Organic Photovoltaic Cells 487Peicheng Li and Zheng-Hong Lu13.1 Introduction 48713.2 Ultraviolet Photoemission Spectroscopy 49013.3 Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interfaces 49313.3.1 Schottky Barrier, Interfacial Dipole, and Slope Parameter 49313.3.2 Interfacial Dipole Theory 49513.3.3 Mapping Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interface 49713.4 Open-Circuit Voltage of Organic Photovoltaic Cell 49913.4.1 Two-Diode Model 49913.4.2 Quasi Fermi Level Model 50113.4.3 Chemical Equilibrium Model 50313.4.4 Kinetic Hopping Model 504References 50814 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposited Materials and Organic Semiconductors in Photovoltaic Devices 511Andrey Kosarev, Ismael Cosme, Svetlana Mansurova, Dmitriy Andronikov, Alexey Abramov and Eugeny Terukov14.1 Introduction 51214.2 Experimental 51314.2.1 Fabrication of PECVD Materials 51314.2.2 Fabrication of Organic Materials 51414.2.3 Configurations and Fabrication of Device Structures 51614.2.4 Characterization of Materials 51614.2.5 Characterization of Device Structures 52114.3 Material Results 52214.3.1 Structure and Composition 52214.3.2 Optical Properties 52614.3.3 Electrical Properties 52914.4 Results for Devices 53714.4.1 Devices Based on PECVD Materials 53714.4.2 Devices Based on Organic Materials 53814.4.3 Hybrid Devices Based on PECVD-Polymer Materials 54014.4.4 Hybrid Devices Using Crystalline Semicinductors, Non-Crystalline PECVD, and Organic Materials (HJT-OS Structures) 54314.5 Outlook 546Acknowledgment 546References 546Part 5 Nano-Photovoltaics 55115 Use of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Third-Generation Solar Cells 553LePing Yu, Munkhbayar Batmunkh, Cameron Shearer and Joseph G. Shapter15.1 Introduction 55415.1.1 Energy Issues and Potential Solutions 55415.1.2 Categories of Photovoltaic Devices and Their Development 55415.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 55615.3 Transparent Conducting Electrodes (TCEs) 55615.3.1 ITO and FTO 55615.3.2 CNTs for TCEs 55715.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 56315.4.1 CNTs-TCFs for DSSCs 56315.4.2 Semiconducting Layers 56515.4.2.1 Nanostructured TiO2 Materials 56515.4.2.2 Semiconducting Layers with CNTs 56615.4.3 Catalyst Layers 57015.4.3.1 Platinum (Pt) and Other Catalysts 57015.5 CNTs in Perovskite Solar Cells 57215.6 Carbon Nanotube–Silicon (CNT–Si) or Nanotube–Silicon Heterojunction (NSH) Solar Cells 57515.6.1 Working Mechanism 57515.6.2 Development of Si-CNT Devices 57615.6.3 Origin of Photocurrent 57715.6.4 Effect of the Number of CNT Walls 57815.6.5 Effect of the Electronic Type of CNTs 57915.6.6 Effect of CNT Alignment in the Electrode 57915.6.7 Effect of the Transmittance/Thickness of CNT Films 58015.6.8 Effect of Doping 58015.6.9 Intentional Addition of Silicon Oxide Layer 58115.6.10 Enhancement of Light Absorption 58215.6.11 Application of Conductive Polymers 58415.6.12 Discussion 58415.7 Outlook and Conclusion 585References 58616 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 611Xiaoli Zhao, Chengjie Xiang, Ming Huang, Mei Ding, Chuankun Jia and Lidong Sun16.1 Introduction 61216.2 Quantum Dots and Their Properties 61216.2.1 Fundamental Concepts 61216.2.2 Size-Dependent Quantum Confinement Effect 61316.2.3 Multiple Exciton Generation Effect 61416.2.4 The Kondo Effect 61616.2.5 Applications 61716.3 Synthetic Methods for Quantum Dots 61816.3.1 Hot Injection 61816.3.1.1 Theoretical Evaluation of Nucleation and Growth 61916.3.1.2 Influence Factors 62116.3.1.3 Features 62316.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 62416.3.2.1 Theoretical Evaluation of the CBD Method 62516.3.2.2 Influence Factors 62516.3.2.3 Features 62716.3.3 Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction 62816.3.3.1 Theoretical Evaluation of SILAR Method 62916.3.3.2 Influence Factors 63016.3.3.3 Features 63216.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 63316.4.1 Schottky Junction Solar Cells 63316.4.1.1 Device Structure 63316.4.1.2 Preparation Route 63516.4.1.3 Materials Selection 63516.4.1.4 Photovoltaic Performance 63616.4.2 Depleted Heterojunction Solar Cells 63716.4.2.1 Device Structure 63716.4.2.2 Preparation Route 63816.4.2.3 Materials Selection 63916.4.2.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64016.4.3 Quantum-Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells 64116.4.3.1 Device Structure 64116.4.3.2 Preparation Route 64216.4.3.3 Materials Selection 64316.4.3.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64416.4 Challenges and Perspectives 645References 64617 Near-Infrared Responsive Quantum Dot Photovoltaics Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives 659Ru Zhou, Jun Xu and Jinzhang Xu17.1 Introduction 66017.2 Physical and Chemical Properties 66217.2.1 Multiple Exciton Generation 66217.2.2 Quantum Size Effect 66317.2.3 Other Features 66417.3 Materials and Film Processing 66517.3.1 In Situ Strategy 66517.3.2 Ex Situ Strategy 66617.3.3 A Comparison between In Situ and Ex Situ 66717.4 NIR Responsive QDs and Photovoltaic Performance 66917.4.1 Binary Lead Chalcogenides 66917.4.2 Binary Silver Chalcogenides 67417.4.3 Ternary Indium-Based Chalcogenides 67617.4.4 Ternary and Quaternary Alloyed Compounds 67817.5 Strategies for Performance Enhancement 68217.5.1 Light Management 68217.5.1.1 Nanophotonic Structuring 68217.5.1.2 Plasmonic Enhancement 68317.5.2 Carrier Management 68417.5.2.1 Band Structure Tailoring 68417.5.2.2 Surface Engineering 68717.5.2.3 Charge Collection Optimizing 69217.6 New Concept Solar Cells 69217.6.1 Multiple-Junction CQD Solar Cells 69317.6.2 Flexible Solar Cells 69417.6.3 Semitransparent Solar Cells 69417.6.4 QD/Perovskite Hybrid Solar Cells 69617.7 Conclusions and Perspectives 699Acknowledgments 701References 701Part 6 Concentrator Photovoltaics and Analysis Models 71918 Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System 721Kok-Keong Chong, Chee-Woon Wong, Tiong-Keat Yew, Ming-Hui Tan and Woei-Chong Tan18.1 Introduction 72218.2 Primary Concentrator Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator 72218.2.1 Geometry of Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator (NIDC) 72318.2.2 Methodology of Designing NIDC Geometry 72618.2.3 Coordinate Transformation of Facet Mirror 72818.2.4 Computational Algorithm 73018.3 Secondary Concentrator    An Array of Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CCPC) Lenses 73318.4 Concentrator Photovoltaic Module 74018.5 Prototype of Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System (DACPV) 74218.6 Optical Efficiency of the CCPC Lens 74418.7 Experimental Study of Electrical Performance 75018.7.1 Current Measurement Circuit 75418.8 Cost Estimation of the Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System Using Two-Stage Non-Imaging Concentrators 75718.9 Conclusion 758Acknowledgments 759References 76019 Solar Radiation Analysis Model and PVsyst Simulation for Photovoltaic System Design 763Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua19.1 Introduction 76419.1.1 Solar Energy in Turkey 76419.1.2 Climate, Solar Energy Potential, and Electric Production in Erzincan 76619.2 Data Analysis Model for Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 76819.2.1 Horizontal Surface 76819.2.1.1 Daily Total Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.3 Momentary Total Solar Radiation 76919.2.1.4 Momentary Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation 76919.2.2 Calculating Solar Radiation Intensity on Inclined Surface 77019.2.2.1 Momentary Direct Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.2 Momentary Diffuse Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.3 Reflecting Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.2.4 Total Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.3 Data Analysis and Discussion 77119.3 PVsyst Simulation for the Solar Farm System Design 77719.3.1 Methodology 77719.3.2 Findings Obtained with PVsyst Simulation 78119.4 Conclusions 783References 784Index 787

Santosh K. Kurinec is a Professor of Electrical & Microelectronic Engineering at Rochester Institute of Technology (RIT), NY, USA. She received her PhD degree in Physics from the University of Delhi, India. She worked as postdoc at University of Florida and later faculty at Florida A&M/Florida State University College of Engineering prior to joining RIT. She is a Fellow of IEEE, received the 2012 IEEE Technical Field Award and was inducted in the International Women in Technology (WiTi) Hall of Fame in 2018. Her current research activities include photovoltaics, advanced integrated circuit materials, devices and processes.

• Preface xxiPart 1 Silicon Photovoltaics 11 Emergence of Continuous Czochralski (CCZ) Growth for Monocrystalline Silicon Photovoltaics 3Santosh K. Kurinec, Charles Bopp and Han Xu1.1 Introduction 41.1.1 The Czochralski (CZ) Process 51.1.2 Continuous Czochralski Process (CCZ) 111.2 Continuous Czochralski Process Implementations 131.3 Solar Cells Fabricated Using CCZ Ingots 151.3.1 n-Type Mono-Si High-Efficiency Cells 151.3.2 Gallium-Doped p-Type Silicon Solar Cells 171.4 Conclusions 19References 192 Materials Chemistry and Physics for Low-Cost Silicon Photovoltaics 23Tingting Jiang and George Z. Chen2.1 Introduction 242.2 Crystalline Silicon in Traditional/Classic Solar Cells 262.2.1 Manufacturing of Silicon Solar Cell 262.2.2 Efficiency Loss in Silicon Solar Cell 292.2.3 New Strategies for the Silicon Solar Cell 322.3 Low-Cost Crystalline Silicon 332.3.1 Metallurgical Silicon 332.3.2 Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 332.3.2.1 Properties of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 342.3.2.2 Production of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon 352.3.2.3 Development of Upgraded Metallurgical-Grade Silicon Solar Cells 362.3.3 High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 372.3.3.1 Crystal Growth 372.3.3.2 Material Properties of High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 392.3.3.3 Solar Cell Based on High-Performance Multicrystalline Silicon 402.4 Advanced p-Type Silicon—in Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell (PERC) 412.4.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cells 412.4.1.1 Passivated Emitter Solar Cell (PESC) 412.4.1.2 Passivated Emitter and Rear Cell 422.4.1.3 Passivated Emitter, Rear Locally Diffused Solar Cells 432.4.1.4 Passivated Emitter, Rear Totally Diffused Solar Cells 442.4.2 Surface Passivation 452.5 Advanced n-Type Silicon 462.5.1 Interdigitated Back Contact (IBC) Solar Cell 472.5.2 Silicon Heterojunction (SHJ) Solar Cells 502.5.2.1 The Device Structure and the Advantages of HIT Solar Cells 512.5.2.2 Strategies of Achieving High-Efficiency HIT Solar Cell 522.6 Conclusion 53References 543 Recycling Crystalline Silicon Photovoltaic Modules 61Pablo Dias and Hugo Veit3.1 Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment 623.2 Photovoltaic Modules 653.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Modules 663.3 Recyclability of Waste Photovoltaic Modules 693.3.1 Frame 703.3.2 Superstrate (Front Glass) 713.3.3 Metallic Filaments (Busbars) 723.3.4 Photovoltaic Cell 733.3.5 Polymers 743.3.6 Recyclability Summary 753.4 Separation and Recovery of Materials The Recycling Process 763.4.1 Mechanical and Physical Processes 763.4.1.1 Shredding 773.4.1.2 Sieving 773.4.1.3 Density Separation 793.4.1.4 Manual Separation 823.4.1.5 Electrostatic Separation 823.4.2 Thermal Processes—Polymers 843.4.3 Separation Using Organic Solvents 863.4.4 Pyrometallurgy 903.4.5 Hydrometallurgy 903.4.6 Electrometallurgy 933.5 New Trends in the Recycling Processes 94References 98Part 2 Emerging Photovoltaic Materials 1034 Photovoltaics in Ferroelectric Materials Origin, Challenges and Opportunities 105Charles Paillard, Grégory Geneste, Laurent Bellaiche, Jens Kreisel, Marvin Alexe and Brahim Dkhil4.1 Physics of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectrics 1064.1.1 Conventional Photovoltaic Technologies 1064.1.1.1 The p–n Junction 1064.1.1.2 The Shockley–Queisser Limit 1094.1.2 Mechanisms of the Photovoltaic Effect in Ferroelectric Materials 1104.1.2.1 The Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1104.1.2.2 Barrier Effects 1184.2 Opportunities and Challenges of Photoferroelectrics 1234.2.1 To Switch or not to Switch 1244.2.1.1 Switchability 1244.2.1.2 Influence of Defects 1254.2.2 The Bandgap Problem 1274.2.3 Application of Light-Induced Effects in Ferroelectrics Beyond Solar Cells 1294.2.3.1 Photovoltaics and ICTs 1304.2.3.2 Photo-Induced Strain Toward Optically Controlled Actuators 1304.2.3.3 Photochemistry for Clean Energy and Environment 1314.3 Conclusions 133Acknowledgements 134References 1345 Tin-Based Novel Cubic Chalcogenides A New Paradigm for Photovoltaic Research 141Sajid Ur Rehman, Faheem K. Butt, Zeeshan Tariq and Chuanbo Li5.1 Introduction 1425.2 Cubic Tin Sulfide (π-SnS) 1455.2.1 Application π-SnS in Solar Cells 1455.2.2 Application of π-SnS in Optical Devices 1475.3 Cubic Tin Selenide (π-SnSe) 1535.3.1 Application of π-SnSe in Solar Cells 1535.3.2 Application of π-SnSe in Optical Devices 1545.4 Cubic Tin Telluride (π-SnTe) 1575.4.1 Application of π-SnTe in Optical Devices 1585.5 Conclusion 160Acknowledgement 160References 1616 Insights into the Photovoltaic and Photocatalytic Activity of Cu-, Al-, and Tm-Doped TiO2 165Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Javier Navas, Elisa I. Martín, Teresa Aguilar, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Desireé de los Santos, Rodrigo Alcántara and Concha Fernández-Lorenzo6.1 Introduction 1666.2 Materials and Methods 1676.2.1 Experimental 1676.2.2 Computational Framework 1696.3 Cu-TiO2 Doping 1706.3.1 Photovoltaics of the DSSCs 1756.4 Al-TiO2 Doping 1776.5 Tm-TiO2 Doping 1816.5.1 Photovoltaic Characterization 1846.5.2 Photocatalytic Activity 1866.6 Conclusions 187References 1897 Theory of the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects in Multiferroics 195Bruno Mettout and Pierre Tolédano7.1 Insufficiency of the Traditional Approach to the Bulk Photovoltaic Effect 1967.2 Theoretical Approach to the Photovoltaic and Light-Induced Effects 1977.3 Response Functions under Linearly Polarized Light 1997.3.1 Mean Symmetry of the Light Beam 1997.3.2 Response Functions 2027.3.2.1 Achiral and Nonmagnetic Materials 2027.3.2.2 Chiral and Magnetic Materials 2057.4 Selection Procedures 2067.4.1 External Selection 2067.4.2 Internal Selection 2087.5 Application of the Theory to the Photovoltaic and Photo-Induced Effects in LiNbO3 2107.5.1 Second-Order Photovoltaic Effect 2107.5.2 Photovoltaic Effects in LiNbO3 2127.5.3 Optical Rectification, Photomagnetic, and Photo-Toroidal First-Order Effects 2157.5.4 First-Order Photoelastic and Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2167.6 Magnetoelectric, Photovoltaic, and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2187.6.1 Magnetoelectric Effects in KBiFe2O5 in Absence of Illumination 2187.6.2 Photovoltaic and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in KBiFe2O5 2207.7 Photo-Magnetoelectric and Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2247.7.1 Photo-Magnetoelectric Effects 2247.7.2 Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2267.7.3 Magneto-Photovoltaic Effects in BiFeO3 2277.8 Photorefractive and Photo-Hall Effects in Tungsten Bronzes 2297.8.1 The Photorefractive Effect 2307.8.2 The Photo-Hall Effect 2317.9 Summary and Conclusion 234Acknowledgement 235References 2358 Multication Transparent Conducting Oxides: Tunable Materials for Photovoltaic Applications 239Peediyekkal Jayaram8.1 Introduction 2398.2 Multication Film Growth and Analysis 2438.3 Structural Analysis 2448.4 Raman Spectra 2478.5 Surface Morphology (AFM) 2488.6 Optical Properties UV-Vis Transmittance Spectra 2488.7 Electrical Properties 2538.8 Conclusion 257References 258Part 3 Perovskite Solar Cells 2619 Perovskite Solar Cells Promises and Challenges 263Qiong Wang and Antonio Abate9.1 The Scientific and Technological Background 2649.1.1 The Share of Silicon Solar Cells and Thin Film Solar Cells in Photovoltaic Market 2649.1.2 The Bottleneck of Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Organic Solar Cells 2669.1.3 From a Cost-Effective Alternative to the Highly Efficient Solution 2699.2 The Fast Development of PSCs 2709.2.1 The Fundamental Optoelectronic Properties of Hybrid Organic–Inorganic Lead Halide Perovskite Materials 2719.2.1.1 Optical Properties 2729.2.1.2 Electronic Properties 2769.2.2 Composition Adjustment of Perovskite 2889.2.2.1 Mixed Halides 2889.2.2.2 Multi-Cations 2929.2.2.3 Phase Segregation 2979.2.3 Versatile Deposition Methods of Perovskite Film 2979.2.3.1 Solution-Processed Methods 2989.2.3.2 Vapor Deposition Methods 3069.2.4 Charge Selective Contacts in PSCs 3089.2.4.1 Electron Selective Contacts 3099.2.4.2 Hole Selective Contacts 3119.2.5 Evaluation of PSCs 3159.2.5.1 J–V curve 3159.2.5.2 Maximum Power Point Tracking (MPPT) 3169.2.6 The Systematic Understanding of PSCs 3189.2.6.1 Moisture Vulnerability of Perovskite Materials 3189.2.6.2 The Role of Grain Boundaries 3189.2.6.3 Ion Migration and Hysteresis 3229.2.6.4 Interface/Bulk Defects and Passivation 3249.2.7 PSCs in a Tandem 3289.2.7.1 Structures of Perovskite Tandem Cells 3289.2.7.2 Transparent Contacts and Recombination Contacts 3309.3 Remaining Challenges and Prospects of PSCs 3319.3.1 Lead-Free PSCs 3319.3.2 Stable and Cheap Contact Materials 3369.3.3 Strategies toward Stable PSCs 3389.3.3.1 Against Moisture 3389.3.3.2 Against UV Light 3399.3.3.3 Against Heat 3419.3.4 Large-Area Production of Highly Efficient PSCs 342References 34510 Organic–Inorganic Hybrid Perovskite, CH3NH3PbI3 Modifications in Pb Sites from Experimental and Theoretical Perspectives 357Javier Navas, Antonio Sánchez-Coronilla, Juan Jesús Gallardo, Jose Carlos Piñero, Teresa Aguilar, Elisa I. Martín, Rodrigo Alcántara, Concha Fernández-Lorenzo and Joaquin Martín-Calleja10.1 Introduction 35810.2 Low Doping on Pb Sites 35910.2.1 Materials and Methods 35910.2.1.1 Experimental 35910.2.1.2 Computational Details 36110.2.2 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 36210.2.2.1 XRD 36210.2.2.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 36510.2.2.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 36610.2.2.4 SEM and Cathodoluminescence 36910.2.3 Theoretical Analysis 37110.2.3.1 Structure and Local Geometry 37110.2.3.2 DOS and PDOS Analysis 37210.2.3.3 ELF Analysis 37610.3 High Doping on Pb Sites 37810.3.1 Properties of the Perovskite Prepared 37910.3.1.1 XRD 37910.3.1.2 Diffuse Reflectance UV-Vis Spectroscopy 38410.3.1.3 X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy 38610.3.2 Theoretical Analysis 38810.3.2.1 Structure and Local Geometry 38810.3.2.2 Electron Localization Function 39110.3.2.3 DOS and PDOS Analysis 39310.4 Conclusions 397References 397Part 4 Organic Solar Cells 40111 Increasing the Dielectric Constant of Organic Materials for Photovoltaics 403Viktor Ivasyshyn, Gang Ye, Sylvia Rousseva, Jan C. Hummelen and Ryan C. Chiechi11.1 Introduction 40411.2 Increasing the Dielectric Constant 41511.2.1 Methodology of Dielectric Constant Measurement 41511.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Materials 42111.2.2.1 High Dielectric Constant Donor Materials 42211.2.2.2 High Dielectric Constant Acceptor Materials 42911.3 Conclusions and Outlook 435References 43612 Recent Developments in Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells and Potential Applications 443Devender Singh, Raman Kumar Saini and Shri Bhagwan12.1 Solar Energy and Solar Cells 44412.2 Types of Solar Cells 44512.2.1 First-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44512.2.1.1 Silicon Single-Crystal-Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.2 Polycrystalline Silicon Based Solar Cells 44512.2.1.3 Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2 Second-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44712.2.2.1 Amorphous Silicon (a-Si)-Based Solar Cells 44712.2.2.2 Cadmium Telluride (CdTe)-Based Solar Cells 44812.2.2.3 Copper Indium Diselenide (CuInSe2, or CIS)- Based Solar Cells 44812.2.3 Third-Generation Photovoltaic Cells 44912.2.3.1 Copper Zinc Tin Sulfide (CZTS) and (Its Derivatives) CZTSSe and CZTSe Solar Cells 44912.2.3.2 Organic Solar Cells 44912.2.3.3 Perovskite Solar Cells 45012.2.3.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cell 45012.3 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 45012.4 Operation of DSSCs 45212.4.1 Working System of DSSCs 45412.5 Fabrication of DSSCs 45512.5.1 Substrate Selection and Preparation 45612.5.1.1 Cutting of the Substrate 45612.5.1.2 Cleaning of the Substrate 45612.5.1.3 Masking of the Substrate 45612.5.2 Film Deposition on Substrate 45612.5.2.1 Preparation of TiO2 Paste 45912.5.2.2 Depositing the TiO2 Layer on the Glass Plate 46012.5.3 Dye Impregnation on the Electrode 46012.5.4 Preparation of Counter Electrode 46012.6 Various Materials Used as Essential Components of DSSCs 46112.6.1 Transparent Conducting Substrate 46112.6.2 Photoelectrodes 46212.6.2.1 Titanium Oxide (TiO2) 46212.6.2.2 Zinc Oxide (ZnO) 46312.6.2.3 Niobium Pentoxide (Nb2O5) 46412.6.2.4 Ternary Photoelectrode Materials 46512.6.2.5 Other Metal Oxides 46512.6.3 Photosensitizers 46612.6.3.1 Metal Complexes as Sensitizers 46712.6.4 Electrolytes 47112.6.4.1 Liquid Electrolytes 47212.6.4.2 Solid-State Electrolytes 47312.6.4.3 Quasi-Solid Electrolyte 47412.6.5 Counter Electrodes 47412.6.5.1 Platinized Conducting Glass 47412.6.5.2 Carbon Materials 47412.6.5.3 Conducting Polymers 47512.7 Advantages and Applications of DSSC 47512.8 Future Prospect of DSSC 47612.9 Conclusions 476References 47713 Heterojunction Energetics and Open-Circuit Voltages of Organic Photovoltaic Cells 487Peicheng Li and Zheng-Hong Lu13.1 Introduction 48713.2 Ultraviolet Photoemission Spectroscopy 49013.3 Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interfaces 49313.3.1 Schottky Barrier, Interfacial Dipole, and Slope Parameter 49313.3.2 Interfacial Dipole Theory 49513.3.3 Mapping Energy Level Alignment at Heterojunction Interface 49713.4 Open-Circuit Voltage of Organic Photovoltaic Cell 49913.4.1 Two-Diode Model 49913.4.2 Quasi Fermi Level Model 50113.4.3 Chemical Equilibrium Model 50313.4.4 Kinetic Hopping Model 504References 50814 Plasma-Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposited Materials and Organic Semiconductors in Photovoltaic Devices 511Andrey Kosarev, Ismael Cosme, Svetlana Mansurova, Dmitriy Andronikov, Alexey Abramov and Eugeny Terukov14.1 Introduction 51214.2 Experimental 51314.2.1 Fabrication of PECVD Materials 51314.2.2 Fabrication of Organic Materials 51414.2.3 Configurations and Fabrication of Device Structures 51614.2.4 Characterization of Materials 51614.2.5 Characterization of Device Structures 52114.3 Material Results 52214.3.1 Structure and Composition 52214.3.2 Optical Properties 52614.3.3 Electrical Properties 52914.4 Results for Devices 53714.4.1 Devices Based on PECVD Materials 53714.4.2 Devices Based on Organic Materials 53814.4.3 Hybrid Devices Based on PECVD-Polymer Materials 54014.4.4 Hybrid Devices Using Crystalline Semicinductors, Non-Crystalline PECVD, and Organic Materials (HJT-OS Structures) 54314.5 Outlook 546Acknowledgment 546References 546Part 5 Nano-Photovoltaics 55115 Use of Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) in Third-Generation Solar Cells 553LePing Yu, Munkhbayar Batmunkh, Cameron Shearer and Joseph G. Shapter15.1 Introduction 55415.1.1 Energy Issues and Potential Solutions 55415.1.2 Categories of Photovoltaic Devices and Their Development 55415.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) 55615.3 Transparent Conducting Electrodes (TCEs) 55615.3.1 ITO and FTO 55615.3.2 CNTs for TCEs 55715.4 Dye-Sensitized Solar Cells (DSSCs) 56315.4.1 CNTs-TCFs for DSSCs 56315.4.2 Semiconducting Layers 56515.4.2.1 Nanostructured TiO2 Materials 56515.4.2.2 Semiconducting Layers with CNTs 56615.4.3 Catalyst Layers 57015.4.3.1 Platinum (Pt) and Other Catalysts 57015.5 CNTs in Perovskite Solar Cells 57215.6 Carbon Nanotube–Silicon (CNT–Si) or Nanotube–Silicon Heterojunction (NSH) Solar Cells 57515.6.1 Working Mechanism 57515.6.2 Development of Si-CNT Devices 57615.6.3 Origin of Photocurrent 57715.6.4 Effect of the Number of CNT Walls 57815.6.5 Effect of the Electronic Type of CNTs 57915.6.6 Effect of CNT Alignment in the Electrode 57915.6.7 Effect of the Transmittance/Thickness of CNT Films 58015.6.8 Effect of Doping 58015.6.9 Intentional Addition of Silicon Oxide Layer 58115.6.10 Enhancement of Light Absorption 58215.6.11 Application of Conductive Polymers 58415.6.12 Discussion 58415.7 Outlook and Conclusion 585References 58616 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 611Xiaoli Zhao, Chengjie Xiang, Ming Huang, Mei Ding, Chuankun Jia and Lidong Sun16.1 Introduction 61216.2 Quantum Dots and Their Properties 61216.2.1 Fundamental Concepts 61216.2.2 Size-Dependent Quantum Confinement Effect 61316.2.3 Multiple Exciton Generation Effect 61416.2.4 The Kondo Effect 61616.2.5 Applications 61716.3 Synthetic Methods for Quantum Dots 61816.3.1 Hot Injection 61816.3.1.1 Theoretical Evaluation of Nucleation and Growth 61916.3.1.2 Influence Factors 62116.3.1.3 Features 62316.3.2 Chemical Bath Deposition 62416.3.2.1 Theoretical Evaluation of the CBD Method 62516.3.2.2 Influence Factors 62516.3.2.3 Features 62716.3.3 Successive Ionic Layer Adsorption and Reaction 62816.3.3.1 Theoretical Evaluation of SILAR Method 62916.3.3.2 Influence Factors 63016.3.3.3 Features 63216.4 Quantum Dot Solar Cells 63316.4.1 Schottky Junction Solar Cells 63316.4.1.1 Device Structure 63316.4.1.2 Preparation Route 63516.4.1.3 Materials Selection 63516.4.1.4 Photovoltaic Performance 63616.4.2 Depleted Heterojunction Solar Cells 63716.4.2.1 Device Structure 63716.4.2.2 Preparation Route 63816.4.2.3 Materials Selection 63916.4.2.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64016.4.3 Quantum-Dot-Sensitized Solar Cells 64116.4.3.1 Device Structure 64116.4.3.2 Preparation Route 64216.4.3.3 Materials Selection 64316.4.3.4 Photovoltaic Performance 64416.4 Challenges and Perspectives 645References 64617 Near-Infrared Responsive Quantum Dot Photovoltaics Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives 659Ru Zhou, Jun Xu and Jinzhang Xu17.1 Introduction 66017.2 Physical and Chemical Properties 66217.2.1 Multiple Exciton Generation 66217.2.2 Quantum Size Effect 66317.2.3 Other Features 66417.3 Materials and Film Processing 66517.3.1 In Situ Strategy 66517.3.2 Ex Situ Strategy 66617.3.3 A Comparison between In Situ and Ex Situ 66717.4 NIR Responsive QDs and Photovoltaic Performance 66917.4.1 Binary Lead Chalcogenides 66917.4.2 Binary Silver Chalcogenides 67417.4.3 Ternary Indium-Based Chalcogenides 67617.4.4 Ternary and Quaternary Alloyed Compounds 67817.5 Strategies for Performance Enhancement 68217.5.1 Light Management 68217.5.1.1 Nanophotonic Structuring 68217.5.1.2 Plasmonic Enhancement 68317.5.2 Carrier Management 68417.5.2.1 Band Structure Tailoring 68417.5.2.2 Surface Engineering 68717.5.2.3 Charge Collection Optimizing 69217.6 New Concept Solar Cells 69217.6.1 Multiple-Junction CQD Solar Cells 69317.6.2 Flexible Solar Cells 69417.6.3 Semitransparent Solar Cells 69417.6.4 QD/Perovskite Hybrid Solar Cells 69617.7 Conclusions and Perspectives 699Acknowledgments 701References 701Part 6 Concentrator Photovoltaics and Analysis Models 71918 Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System 721Kok-Keong Chong, Chee-Woon Wong, Tiong-Keat Yew, Ming-Hui Tan and Woei-Chong Tan18.1 Introduction 72218.2 Primary Concentrator Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator 72218.2.1 Geometry of Non-Imaging Dish Concentrator (NIDC) 72318.2.2 Methodology of Designing NIDC Geometry 72618.2.3 Coordinate Transformation of Facet Mirror 72818.2.4 Computational Algorithm 73018.3 Secondary Concentrator    An Array of Crossed Compound Parabolic Concentrator (CCPC) Lenses 73318.4 Concentrator Photovoltaic Module 74018.5 Prototype of Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System (DACPV) 74218.6 Optical Efficiency of the CCPC Lens 74418.7 Experimental Study of Electrical Performance 75018.7.1 Current Measurement Circuit 75418.8 Cost Estimation of the Dense-Array Concentrator Photovoltaic System Using Two-Stage Non-Imaging Concentrators 75718.9 Conclusion 758Acknowledgments 759References 76019 Solar Radiation Analysis Model and PVsyst Simulation for Photovoltaic System Design 763Figen Balo and Lutfu S. Sua19.1 Introduction 76419.1.1 Solar Energy in Turkey 76419.1.2 Climate, Solar Energy Potential, and Electric Production in Erzincan 76619.2 Data Analysis Model for Solar Radiation Intensity Calculation 76819.2.1 Horizontal Surface 76819.2.1.1 Daily Total Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.2 Daily Diffuse Solar Radiation 76819.2.1.3 Momentary Total Solar Radiation 76919.2.1.4 Momentary Diffuse and Direct Solar Radiation 76919.2.2 Calculating Solar Radiation Intensity on Inclined Surface 77019.2.2.1 Momentary Direct Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.2 Momentary Diffuse Solar Radiation 77019.2.2.3 Reflecting Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.2.4 Total Momentary Solar Radiation 77119.2.3 Data Analysis and Discussion 77119.3 PVsyst Simulation for the Solar Farm System Design 77719.3.1 Methodology 77719.3.2 Findings Obtained with PVsyst Simulation 78119.4 Conclusions 783References 784Index 787