Elgar Encyclopedia of Human Rights

Edited by Christina Binder, Department for Public Law and International Law, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany and University of Vienna, Austria, Manfred Nowak, Vienna Master of Arts in Applied Human Rights, University of Applied Arts, Italy, Jane A. Hofbauer, Department for Public Law and International Law, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany and University of Vienna, Austria and Philipp Janig, Department for Public Law and International Law, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany

• AbortionLeah Hoctor, Centre for Reproductive Rights, SwitzerlandAbsolute and Relative RightsProf Dr Manfred Nowak, Global Campus of Human Rights, Italy, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (1993-2001), Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2004-10), Independent Expert for the United Nations Global Study on Children Deprived of Liberty (2016-)Abuse of RightsDr Philipp Janig, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyAccess to InformationDr Yota Negishi, Seinan Gakuin University, JapanAccess to JusticeLeander Beinlich, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyAdditional Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights in the Area of Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (Protocol of San Salvador)Prof Oswaldo Ruiz-Chiriboga†, Central European University, AustriaAdequate Standard of Living, Right to Prof Dr René Urueña, Universidad de los Andes, Colombia & María Cecilia Ibáñez, Universidad de los Andes, ColombiaAdmissibility (of Individual Communications and Complaints)Prof Dr Andreas Th. Müller, University of Innsbruck, AustriaAfrican Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights (AfCHPR)Dr Allwell Uwazuruike, University of Central Lancashire, United KingdomAfrican Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (ACRWC)Prof Dr Chris Maina Peter, University of Dar es Salaam, Tanzania, Member of the International Commission (2012-)African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACHPR)Prof Frans Viljoen, University of Pretoria, South Africa, Member of the Advisory Committee of the UN Human Rights Council (2021-24)African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights (ACtHPR)Dr Micha Wiebusch, African Court on Human and Peoples’ Rights, UNU-CRIS, IOB, SOASAfrican Union (AU)Dr Olufemi Amao, University of Sussex, United KingdomAfrican Youth CharterProf Dr Francesco Seatzu, University of Cagliari, ItalyAfro-descendantsProf Ricardo A Sunga III, De La Salle University, Philippines, Member of the Working Group of Experts on People of African Descent (2014-21)American Convention on Human Rights (ACHR)Prof Dr Eduardo Ferrer Mac-Gregor, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico, Judge at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2013-)American Declaration on the Rights and Duties of ManProf Dr Flavia Piovesan, Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil, Commissioner of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2018-21) & Julia Cortez da Cunha Cruz, University of São Paulo, BrazilAmicus CuriaeDr Astrid Wiik, German Federal Ministry for the Environment, Nature Conservation and Nuclear Safety, GermanyAmnestiesProf Dr René Urueña, Universidad de los Andes, ColombiaAmnesty InternationalDr Martin Hollmann, Amnesty International, Norway; Nathaniel Baverstock, Amnesty International, United Kingdom; Adam Mahoney, Amnesty International, Norway & Krittika Vishwanath, Amnesty International, United KingdomAnimal Rights Prof Dr Anne Peters, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Germany, Venice Commission of the Council of Europe (2011-15)Arab Charter Committee of Human Rights Prof Mohammed Amin Al-Midani, Arab Centre for International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights Education, FranceArab Charter on Human RightsProf Dr Irmgard Marboe, University of Vienna, AustriaArab Court of Human RightsDr Marie Ghantous, Saint Joseph University, LebanonArmed ConflictDr Amrei Müller, University College Dublin, Republic of IrelandArmed Non-State ActorsMarcos Kotlik, University of Buenos Aires, ArgentinaArtificial IntelligenceProf Dr Alessandro Mantelero, Polytechnic University of Turin, ItalyASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights (AICHR)Desi Hanara, ASEAN Parliamentarians for Human Rights (2018-21), Indonesia & Edmund Bon, Mahidol University, Thailand, Member of the ASEAN Intergovernmental Commission on Human Rights (2016-19)Asian ValuesDr Mike Hayes, Mahidol University, ThailandAssociation of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN)Dr Randy W Nandyatama, Gadjah Mada University, IndonesiaAsylum, Right toProf Mark Gibney, University of North Carolina-Asheville, USAAttributionDr Carlo de Stefano, Roma Tre University, ItalyAusterity MeasuresDr Juan Pablo Bohoslavsky, Argentina, Independent Expert on the Effects of Foreign Debt and Other Related International Financial Obligations of States on the Full Enjoyment of All Human Rights, particularly Economic, Social and Cultural Rights(2014-20)Autonomous Weapons Systems Verena Jackson, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyAutonomy, Right toDr Hans-Joachim Heintze, University of the Ruhr Bochum, GermanyBlack SitesDr Sophie Duroy, KFG Berlin-Potsdam ‘The International Rule of Law: Rise or Decline?’, GermanyCairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam Dr Turan Kayaoğlu, University of Washington, Tacoma, USACharter of Fundamental Rights of the European Union (CFR)Prof Dr Werner Schroeder, University of Innsbruck, AustriaCharter of the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN Charter)Dr Randy W Nandyatama, Gadjah Mada University, IndonesiaChild SoldiersDr Donald Riznik, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyChildrenProf Ann Skelton, University of Pretoria, South Africa, Member of the Committee on the Rights of the Child (2021-)Children and Young Persons, Rights ofDr Helmut Sax, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, Austria, Member of the CoE Group of Experts on Action against Trafficking in Human Beings (GRETA, 2011-18)Circumstances Precluding Wrongfulness Dr Federica I Paddeu, University of Cambridge, United KingdomCivil Society and Social Movements Dr Markus Thiel, Florida International University, USAClimate ChangeDr Margit Ammer, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, AustriaCollective and Group RightsEmeritus Prof Dr Robert McCorquodale, University of Nottingham, United Kingdom, Member of the Working Group on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises (2022-)Collective PunishmentDr Cornelia Klocker, University of Konstanz, GermanyColonialismBeatrice Walton, Law Clerk at the US Court of Appeals, Yale University, USACommissions of InquiryProf Christian Henderson, University of Sussex, United KingdomCommon Heritage of MankindTomas Heidar, Member of the International Tribunal for the Law of the Sea (2014-) & Fernanda Millicay, Permanent Representative of Argentina to the International Maritime OrganizationCommunity InterestsDr Jane A Hofbauer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyConsular Assistance, Right toKhawar Qureshi QC, McNair International, United Kingdom, Deputy Judge of the High Court in England and Wales & Catriona Nicol, McNair International LLC, QatarConvention Against Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (CAT)Dr Giuliana Monina, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, AustriaConvention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination Against Women (CEDAW) Prof Dr Felipe Gómez Isa, University ofDeusto, SpainConvention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (CRPD)Prof Janet E Lord, Harvard University, USA & Prof Michael Ashley Stein, Harvard University, USAConvention on the Rights of the Child (CRC) Dr Noam Peleg, University of New South Wales, AustraliaConventionality Control, Doctrine of Héctor Candray, SKEMA Business School, FranceCore Obligations and Progressive RealizationHaris Huremagić, University of Michigan, USACorruptionDr Cecily Rose, Leiden Law School, The NetherlandsCouncil of EuropeProf Veronika Bílková, Charles University, Czech Republic, Institute of International Relations, Czech Republic, Venice Commission of the Council of Europe (2010-), Management Board of the EU Fundamental Rights Agency (2020-)Court of Justice of the EU (CJEU)Dr Kevin Fredy Hinterberger, Austrian Federal Chamber of Labour, AustriaCritical Legal TheoryProf Stephan Sonnenberg, Seoul National University, South KoreaCross-Border AbductionsMarkus Stemeseder, University of Vienna, AustriaCultural HeritageProf Dr Lando Kirchmair, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyCultural RightsDr Pok Yin S Chow, City University of Hong Kong, Hong KongCustomary International LawDr Dr Markus P Beham, University of Passau, GermanyData Protection and Data PrivacyDr Maria Tzanou, University of Sheffield, United KingdomDeath PenaltyProf Dr Carolyn Hoyle, University of Oxford, United KingdomDeclaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UNDRIP)Prof Dr Federico Lenzerini, University of Siena, ItalyDemocratic Governance, Right to Prof Dr Markku Suksi, Åbo Akademi University, FinlandDevelopment, Right toJudith Bauder, University of Vienna, AustriaDevelopment CooperationProf Dr Wouter Vandenhole, Law and Development Research Group, University of Antwerp, BelgiumDevelopment DisplacementDuygu Çiçek, World Bank, USADevelopment FinanceProf Dr Philipp Dann, Humboldt University of Berlin, GermanyDigital RightsProf Dr Elina Pirjatanniemi, Åbo Akademi University, FinlandDiplomatic ProtectionProf Dr Mohamed Bennouna, Judge at the International Court of Justice (2006-)Discrimination, Prohibition ofDr Andrea Broderick, Maastricht University, The NetherlandsDomestic Enforcement of Human Rights Prof Dr Rainer Grote, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyDue Diligence Prof Dr Serena Forlati, University of Ferrara, ItalyEast African Community (EAC) Prof Dr James Thuo Gathii, Loyola University Chicago, USAEast African Court of Justice (EACJ) Prof Dr James Thuo Gathii, Loyola University Chicago, USAEconomic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)Prof Kofi Oteng Kufuor, University of East London, United KingdomEconomic SanctionsIsabella Brunner, University of Vienna, AustriaECOWAS Community Court of Justice Prof Magnus Killander, University of Pretoria, South AfricaEducation, Right toProf Laura Lundy, Queen’s University Belfast, United KingdomEffective Remedy, Right toDr Stuart Wallace, University of Leeds, United KingdomElection Observation and Assistance, InternationalProf Dr Christina Binder, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany, Member of the Group of Independent Experts (GIE) on the European Charter of Local Self- Government of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (2017-)Elections and Government, Right to Participate inProf Dr Christina Binder, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany, Member ofthe Group of Independent Experts (GIE) on the European Charter of Local Self- Government of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (2017-)Emergency, State ofProf Christina M Cerna, University of Georgetown, USA, Member of the Board of Amnesty International USA (2019-21)Energy, Right toMarlies Hesselman, University of Groningen, The NetherlandsEnforced DisappearancesProf Ariel Dulitzky, University of Texas at Austin, USA, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (2010-17)Enforcement of Human Rights Under General International LawProf Dr Jörg Künzli, University of Bern, SwitzerlandEnvironment, Right toProf Marcel Szabó, Pázmány Péter Catholic University, HungaryErga Omnes (Partes)Dr Jane A Hofbauer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyEthnic CleansingDr Clotilde Pégorier, University of Essex, United KingdomEuropean Committee of Social Rights (ECSR)Prof József Hajdú, University of Szeged, Hungary, Member of the European Committee of Social Rights (2013-)European Convention for the Prevention of TortureProf Dr Ursula Kriebaum, University of Vienna, AustriaEuropean Convention on Human Rights (ECHR)Prof Laurence Burgorgue-Larsen, Paris 1 Panthéon-Sorbonne, FranceEuropean Court of Human Rights (ECtHR) Prof Dr Christina Binder, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany, Member of the Group of Independent Experts (GIE) on the European Charter of Local Self- Government of the Congress of Local and Regional Authorities of the Council of Europe (2017-)European Social Charter (ESC) Dr Amaya Úbeda de Torres, Senior Lawyer at the Council of EuropeEuropean Union (EU)Prof Dr Werner Schroeder, University of Innsbruck, AustriaEuthanasiaProf Dr Stefania Negri, University of Salerno, ItalyExhaustion of Domestic RemediesProf Dr Yves Haeck, Programme for Studies on Human Rights in Context, Ghent University, Belgium & Aurélie Van Baelen, Ghent University, BelgiumExport Credit AgenciesKilian Wagner, University of Vienna, AustriaExpulsion, Protection Against Prof Dr Vincent Chetail, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, SwitzerlandExtraditionProf Dr Harmen van der Wilt, University of Amsterdam, The NetherlandsExtrajudicial KillingsProf Christof Heyns†, University of Pretoria, South Africa, Special Rapporteur on Extrajudicial, Summary or Arbitrary Executions (2010-16), Member of the Human Rights Committee (2017-21)Extraterritorial Application of Human RightsDr Philipp Janig, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyFair Trial, Right to (Administrative Proceedings)Prof Fulvia Staiano, Giustino Fortunato University, ItalyFair Trial, Right to (Civil Proceedings)Prof Fulvio M Palombino, University of Naples Federico II, Italy & Dr Pierfrancesco Rossi, Luiss University, ItalyFair Trial, Right to (Criminal Proceedings) Koloman Roiger-Simek, University of Vienna, AustriaFair Trial Rights in International Criminal ProceedingsAmir Ardelan Farhadi, Foley Hoag LLP, USAFemale Genital MutilationKristen M DeRemer, South KoreaFemicideMarijana Grandits, University of Applied Arts Vienna, Austria & Dr Tijana Tešanović, University of Applied Arts Vienna, AustriaFeminist Theories of International Law Prof Jayne C Huckerby, Duke University, USAFood, Right toDr Joanna Bourke Martignoni, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, SwitzerlandFramework Convention on National MinoritiesProf Dr Gerhard Hafner, University of Vienna, Austria, Member of the International Law Commission (1996-2001)Free, Prior and Informed Consent (FPIC) Dr Jane A Hofbauer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyFreedom of AssemblyClément Nyaletsossi Voule, United Nations, Switzerland, Special Rapporteur on the Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and of Association (2018-) & Prof Christopher Roberts, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong KongFreedom of AssociationClément Nyaletsossi Voule, United Nations, Switzerland, Special Rapporteur on the Rights to Freedom of Peaceful Assembly and of Association (2018-) & Prof Christopher Roberts, Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong KongFreedom of Movement and Residence of Non-CitizensProf Jaya Ramji-Nogales, Temple University, USAFreedom of Opinion and ExpressionProf David Kaye, University of California, Irvine, USA, Special Rapporteur on the Promotion and Protection of the Rightto Freedom of Opinion and Expression (2014-20)Freedom of Thought, Conscience and ReligionDr Ahmed Shaheed, University of Essex, United Kingdom, Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran (2011-16), Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief (2016-) & Rose Parris Richter, City University of New York, USAGenderProf Ivana Radačić, Ivo Pilar Institute of Social Sciences, Croatia, Member of the Working Group on Discrimination against Women and Girls (2017-) & Prof Alice M Miller, Yale University, USAGender Identity and ExpressionProf Dianne Otto, University of Melbourne, AustraliaGeneral Comments and Recommendations Prof Dr Vasilka Sancin, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia, Member of the Human Rights Committee (2019-)General Principles of LawDr Philipp Janig, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyGenerations of Human Rights Koloman Roiger-Simek, University of Vienna, AustriaGenocide Convention (Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide)Prof Philippe Sands, University College London, United Kingdom & Lea Main- Klingst, ClientEarth, GermanyGlobal CompactKayla Winarsky Green, BSR (Business for Social Responsibility), USAGlobal ConstitutionalismDr Wayne Sandholtz, University of Southern California, USAGlobalizationProf Dr Michael Lysander Fremuth, University of Vienna, Austria, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, AustriaGood GovernanceProf Dr Lando Kirchmair, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyGross and Systematic Human Rights ViolationsDr Rhona KM Smith, Newcastle University, United Kingdom, Special Rapporteur on the Situation of Human Rights in Cambodia (2015-21)Guiding Principles on Business and Human RightsProf Dr Nicolas Bueno, UniDistance Suisse, Switzerland & Prof Dr Christine Kaufmann, University of Zurich, SwitzerlandHabeas CorpusDr Brian R Farrell, University of Iowa, USAHappiness, Right toNima Dorji, Jigme Singye Wangchuck School of Law, BhutanHate SpeechProf Dr Erica Howard, Middlesex University, United KingdomHealth, Right toProf Dr Stefania Negri, University of Salerno, ItalyHistorical Development of International Human Rights LawProf Steven Wheatley, University of Lancaster, United KingdomHomeless PersonsProf Dr Tamara Walsh, University of Queensland, AustraliaHousing, Right toProf Padraic Kenna, National University of Ireland, Republic of IrelandHuman CloningProf Kerry Lynn Macintosh, Santa Clara University, USAHuman DignityProf Christopher McCrudden, Queen’s University Belfast, United KingdomHuman DutiesDr Eric R Boot, Tilburg University, The NetherlandsHuman Rights Based ApproachWalter Suntinger, University of Applied Arts Vienna, AustriaHuman Rights ConditionalityProf Daniela Sicurelli, University of Trento, ItalyHuman Rights DefendersAdam Drnovsky, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyHuman Rights EducationProf Dr Wolfgang Benedek, University of Graz, AustriaHuman Rights Impact AssessmentRavi Prakash Vyas, Kathmandu School of Law, NepalHuman Rights IndicatorsDr Hans-Otto Sano, The Danish Institute for Human Rights, DenmarkHuman Rights ScepticismProf George Ulrich, Global Campus of Human Rights, ItalyHuman Rights Watch (HRW)Dr Fiona McGaughey, University of Western Australia, AustraliaHuman SecurityDr Dorothy Estrada-Tanck, University of Murcia, Spain, Vice-Chair of the Working Group on Discrimination against Women and Girls (2020-)Human TraffickingProf Yoon Jin Shin, Seoul National University, South KoreaHumanitarian InterventionProf Christian J Tams, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom, Leuphana University Lüneburg, GermanyILO StandardsLee Swepston, International Labour Organization (retired), France, Visiting Professor at Lund University, SwedenImmunity of States and State Officials Dr Donald Riznik, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyIn Absentia TrialsViktoria Ritter, University of Vienna, AustriaIndependence of Domestic CourtsSara Mansour Fallah, University of Vienna, AustriaIndependent Experts and Special Rapporteurs (Special Procedures)Prof Ilias Bantekas, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, QatarIndigenous PeoplesDr Dalee Sambo Dorough, University of Alaska, Anchorage, USAIndividual and Collective Communications or Complaint ProceduresDiana Rucavado Rojas, King’s College London, United KingdomInfectious DiseasesDr Pedro A Villarreal, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyInquiry ProceduresProf Dr Manuel Brunner, Police Academy Lower Saxony, GermanyIntellectual Property RightsProf Dr Duncan Matthews, Queen Mary University of London, United KingdomInter-American Commission on Human Rights (IACHR)Prof Flavia Piovesan, Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil, Commissioner of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2018-21) & Julia Cortez da Cunha Cruz, University of São Paulo, BrazilInter-American Convention on Forced Disappearance of Persons (IACFDP)Dr Rainer Huhle, University of Erlangen- Nürnberg, Germany, Member of the Committee on Enforced Disappearances (2011-19)Inter-American Convention on Protecting the Human Rights of Older PersonsProf Dr Francesco Seatzu, University of Cagliari, ItalyInter-American Convention on the Prevention, Punishment and Eradication of Violence Against WomenProf Dr Encarnación Carmona, University of Alcalá, SpainInter-American Court of Human Rights (IACtHR)Prof Eduardo Ferrer Mac-Gregor, National Autonomous University of Mexico, Mexico, Judge at the Inter-American Court of Human Rights (2013-)Interception at SeaProf Irini Papanicolopulu, University of Milano-Bicocca, ItalyIntergenerational EquityDr Katalin Sulyok, Eötvös Loránd (ELTE) University, Hungary, Chief Legal Advisor to the Ombudsman for Future Generations, HungaryInternally Displaced Persons (IDPs) Viktoria Baumgartl, Vienna University of Economics and Business, AustriaInternational Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC)Prof Dr Daniel-Erasmus Khan, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyInternational Convention for the Protection of All Persons from Enforced Disappearance (ICPPED)Prof Bernard Duhaime, Université du Québec à Montréal, Canada, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (2014-21) & Rhiannon Painter, United Nations, SwitzerlandInternational Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (ICERD)Prof E Tendayi Achiume, UCLA School of Law, USA, Special Rapporteur on Contemporary Forms of Racism, Racial Discrimination, Xenophobia and Related Intolerance (2017-) & Dianne Lake, Yale University, USAInternational Convention on the Protection of the Rights of All Migrant Workers and Members of their Families (ICMW)Dr Ryszard Cholewinski, International Labour Organization (ILO), Regional Office for Arab States, LebanonInternational CooperationProf Dr Stephanie Schiedermair, Leipzig University, GermanyInternational Court of Justice (ICJ)Prof Dr Bruno Simma, University of Michigan, USA, Member of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1987-96), Member of the International Law Commission (1996-2003), Judge at the International Court of Justice (2003-12)International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR)Prof Sarah Joseph, Griffith University, AustraliaInternational Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (ICESCR)Prof Zdzisław (Dzidek) Kędzia, Mickiewicz University, Poland, Member of the Committee on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (2009-)International CrimesDr Astrid Reisinger Coracini, University of Vienna, AustriaInternational Criminal Court (ICC) Prof Robert Cryer†, University of Birmingham, United KingdomInternational Criminal JusticeDr Philipp Kastner, University of Western Australia, AustraliaInternational Criminal Law and Human RightsProf Dr Evelyne Schmid, University of Lausanne, Switzerland & Hana Drif, University of Lausanne, SwitzerlandInternational Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR)Prof Milena Sterio, Cleveland State University, USAInternational Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY)Kristopher Yue, Government of Canada, CanadaInternational Environmental Law and Human RightsDr Felicity Attard, University of Malta, Malta & Prof Malgosia Fitzmaurice, Queen Mary University of London, United KingdomInternational Finance and Human Rights Prof Ilias Bantekas, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, QatarInternational Humanitarian Law and Human RightsProf Dr Marco Sassòli, University of Geneva, SwitzerlandInternational Investment Law and Human RightsProf Dr Eric De Brabandere, Leiden University, The NetherlandsInternational Labour Organization (ILO) Lee Swepston, International Labour Organization (retired), France, Visiting Professor at Lund University Law School, SwedenInternational Monetary Fund (IMF)Dr Thomas Stubbs, Royal Holloway, University of London, United KingdomInternational Organization for Migration (IOM)Prof Antoine Pécoud, University Sorbonne Paris Nord, FranceInternational OrganizationsProf August Reinisch, University of Vienna, Austria, Member of the International Law Commission (2017-)International Organizations, Immunities of Prof August Reinisch, University of Vienna, Austria, Member of the International Law Commission (2017-)International Peace and SecurityProf Robin Geiß, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom & Dr Rebecca Mignot- Mahdavi, University of Manchester, United KingdomInternational Solidarity, Right toProf Obiora Chinedu Okafor, Johns Hopkins University, USA, Independent Expert on Human Rights and International Solidarity (2017-23)International Trade Law and Human Rights Prof Michael Waibel, University of Vienna, AustriaInternet, Right toProf Dr Matthias C Kettemann, University of Innsbruck, Austria & Felicitas Rachinger, University of Innsbruck, AustriaIntersectionalityDr Monika Mayrhofer, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, AustriaInter-State Complaint ProceduresDr Isabella Risini, Ruhr-University, Germany & Prof Geir Ulfstein, University of Oslo, NorwayIntervention, Prohibition ofDr Ralph Janik, University of Vienna, AustriaIus Constitutionale Commune en América Latina (ICCAL)Prof Dr Armin von Bogdandy, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, Germany, Member of the Scientific Committee of the EU Fundamental Rights Agency (2008-13), President of the OECD Nuclear Energy Tribunal (2006-14) & Dr Mariela Morales Antoniazzi, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyJurisdiction of StatesProf Cedric Ryngaert, University of Utrecht, The NetherlandsJus CogensProf Erika de Wet, University of Graz, AustriaJusticiability of Human RightsProf Veronika Bílková, Charles University, Czech Republic, Institute of International Relations, Czech Republic, Venice Commission of the Council of Europe (2010-), Management Board of the EU Fundamental Rights Agency (2020-)Labour and Concentration CampsHaris Huremagić, University of Michigan, USA & Fritz Kainz, University of Virginia, USALand GrabbingProf Dr Francesco Seatzu, University of Cagliari, ItalyLand Rights of Indigenous Peoples Prof Jérémie Gilbert, University of Roehampton, United KingdomLeague of Arab States (LAS)Prof Dr Wael Allam, University of Sharjah, United Arab EmiratesLeague of NationsDr Taina Tuori, University of Helsinki, FinlandLegal PluralismProf Dr Paul Gragl, Karl-Franzens- Universität Graz, AustriaLegal PositivismBaşak Etkin, Université Paris 2 Panthéon- Assas, FranceLiberty of Person, Right toDr Elina Steinerte, University of Bristol, United Kingdom, Member of the Working Group on Arbitrary Detention (2016-)Limitations and Restrictions of RightsProf Dr Thilo Marauhn, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Germany & Vera Strobel, Justus Liebig University Giessen, GermanyLocal and Regional Governments and Human Rights CitiesProf Frédéric Mégret, McGill University, CanadaMargin of AppreciationProf Dr Yuval Shany, Hebrew University, Israel, Member of the Human Rights Committee (2013-20)Marxist Approaches to International Law Dr Robert Knox, University of Liverpool, United Kingdom & Dr Ntina Tzouvala, Australian National University, AustraliaMedical ResearchProf Alicia Ely Yamin, Harvard University, USA, Member of the UN Secretary General’s Independent Accountability Panel for Women’s, Children’s and Adolescents’ Health in the SDGs (2016-21) & Alison Roberts, Harvard University, USAMigrantsProf Dr Anuscheh Farahat, Friedrich- Alexander-Universität Erlangen-Nürnberg, GermanyMilitary ServiceAssoc Prof Hitomi Takemura, Hitotsubashi University, JapanMilitary TribunalsMartin Baumgartner, University of Vienna, AustriaMillennium Development Goals (MDGs) Prof Dr Yousra Abourabi, International University of Rabat, MoroccoMinoritiesProf Dr Aristoteles Constantinides, University of Cyprus, CyprusMinorities, Rights ofProf Dr Aristoteles Constantinides, University of Cyprus, CyprusMothers, Rights ofDr Anne Maree Payne, University of Technology Sydney, AustraliaName, Right to aDr Fernand de Varennes, United Nations, Switzerland, Special Rapporteur on Minority Issues (2017-) & Dr Elżbieta Kuzborska- Pacha, OSCE High Commissioner on National Minorities, The NetherlandsNational Human Rights Institutions (NHRIs) Dr Jonas Grimheden, European Border and Coastguard Agency, PolandNational Liberation MovementsDr Noelle Higgins, Maynooth University, Republic of IrelandNationality, Right toMarija Dobric, Binder Grösswang Rechtsanwälte GmbH, AustriaNatural DisastersMarlies Hesselman, University of Groningen, The Netherlands & Dr Dug Cubie, University College Cork, Republic of IrelandNatural Law TheoriesDr Tom Sparks, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyNegative and Positive ObligationsProf Dinah Shelton, George Washington University, USA, Commissioner of the Inter- American Commission on Human Rights (2010-14)No Punishment Without LawSebastián Green Martínez, Universidad Internacional de la Rioja, Spain, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Argentina (on leave), Associate at Uría Menéndez, SpainNomadsProf Jérémie Gilbert, University of Roehampton, United KingdomNon-Governmental Organizations (NGOs) Prof Dr Math Noortmann, Maastricht University, The Netherlands, Coventry University, United KingdomNon-refoulementDr Fanny de Weck, RISE Attorneys at Law, Zurich, Switzerland, Lecturer at the University of Lucerne, SwitzerlandNon-State ActorsProf Andrew Clapham, Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies, Switzerland, Member of the Commission on Human Rights in South Sudan (2017-)North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) Steven Hill, Leiden University, The NetherlandsOffice for Democratic Institutions and Human Rights (ODIHR)Dr Richard Lappin, Catholic University of Leuven, BelgiumOffice of the High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR)Christen Broecker, Jacob Blaustein Institute for the Advancement of Human Rights, USA & Prof Rosa Freedman, University of Reading, United KingdomOlder PersonsProf Andrew Byrnes, University of New South Wales, AustraliaOmbudsman InstitutionsProf Dr Gabriele Kucsko-Stadlmayer, Judge at the European Court of Human Rights (2015-)Ordre Public (Public Policy)Timothy McKenzie, King & Spalding LLP, USAOrganisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)Dr Mateja S Platise, Max Planck Institute for Comparative Public Law and International Law, GermanyOrganization for Security and Co-operation in Europe (OSCE)Dr Richard Lappin, Catholic University of Leuven, BelgiumOrganization of American States (OAS) Prof Flavia Piovesan, Pontifical Catholic University of São Paulo, Brazil, Commissioner of the Inter-American Commission on Human Rights (2018-21) & Julia Cortez da Cunha Cruz, University of São Paulo, BrazilOrganization of Islamic Cooperation (OIC) Dr Turan Kayaoğlu, University of Washington, Tacoma, USAOrganized CrimeDr Oliver Landwehr, European External Action Service, AustriaPeace, Right toProf Ilias Bantekas, Hamad Bin Khalifa University, QatarPeacekeeping Operations Prof Dr Jan Wouters, KU Leuven, Belgium & Estelle Irambona, KU Leuven, BelgiumPeoplesDr James Summers, Lancaster University, United KingdomPermanent Court of International Justice (PCIJ)Prof Dr Astrid Kjeldgaard-Pedersen, University of Copenhagen, DenmarkPermanent Sovereignty Over Natural Resources (PSNR)Prof Dr Dorothée Cambou, University of Helsinki, FinlandPersons of Colour (POC)Prof William J Aceves, California Western School of Law, USAPersons with DisabilitiesProf Dr Theresia Degener, Protestant University of Applied Sciences Bochum, Germany, Member of the Committee on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities (2011-18)Positive Discrimination and Affirmative ActionDr Andrea Broderick, Maastricht University, The NetherlandsPovertyProf Dr Stephen P Marks, Harvard University, USAPreventive and Administrative Detention Dr Diane Webber, Georgetown University Law Center, USAPreventive VisitsMoritz Birk, Amnesty International, AustriaPrisonersHelen Fair, Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research, Birkbeck, University of London, United Kingdom & Catherine Heard, Institute for Crime & Justice Policy Research, Birkbeck, University of London, United KingdomPrivate and Family Life, Right to Respect for Prof Dr Joe Cannataci, University of Groningen, The Netherlands, University of Malta, Malta, Senior Fellow and Research Associate at Security & Defence Research, CNAM Paris (2019-), Special Rapporteur on the Right to Privacy (2015-21), Lead Expert and Chair of the CoE Art. 11 Expert Group, Convention 108 (2022-), Chair of the CoE Committee of Experts on Data Protection (1996-98), CoE Rapporteur on Data Protection & the Police (1993)Private Security CompaniesDr Gábor Kajtár, Eötvös Loránd (ELTE) University, HungaryProperty, Right toProf Dr Ursula Kriebaum, University of Vienna, AustriaProtocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Older PersonsChipo Irene Rushwaya, Institute for Human Rights and Development in Africa, GambiaProtocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in AfricaProf Dr Delia Ferri, Maynooth University, Republic of IrelandProtocol to the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights on the Rights of Women in Africa (Maputo Protocol)Prof Dr Lilian Chenwi, University of the Witwatersrand, South AfricaPublic Interest LitigationProf Anne Levesque, Université d’Ottawa, CanadaRacial and Ethnic ProfilingProf Daniel Moeckli, University of Zurich, SwitzerlandRefugeesDr Adel-Naim Reyhani, Ludwig Boltzmann Institute of Fundamental and Human Rights, AustriaReligious ClothingProf Dr Erica Howard, Middlesex University, United KingdomReligious PracticesProf Heiner Bielefeldt, University of Erlangen-Nuremberg, Germany, Special Rapporteur on Freedom of Religion or Belief (2010-16)Reparation for Human Rights Violations Dr Yulia Ioffe, University College London, United KingdomReply, Right ofDr Felix Hempel, University of East Anglia, United KingdomReproductive RightsLeah Hoctor, Centre for Reproductive Rights, SwitzerlandReservations to TreatiesDr Sotirios-Ioannis Lekkas, University of Groningen, The Netherlands & Prof Dr Panos Merkouris, University of Groningen, The NetherlandsRespect-Protect-FulfilProf Dr Manfred Nowak, Global Campus of Human Rights, Italy, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (1993-2001), Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2004-10), Independent Expert for the United Nations Global Study on Children Deprived of Liberty (2016-)Responsibility to Protect (R2P)Prof Hanspeter Neuhold, University of Vienna, AustriaRevolution, Right toProf Aleksandar Marsavelski, University of Zagreb, CroatiaRight Not to Be Tried or Punished Twice (Ne Bis in Idem)Haris Huremagić, University of Michigan, USA & Fritz Kainz, University of Virginia, USARight to Be Recognized as a Person Before the LawViktoria Ritter, University of Vienna, AustriaRight to LifeProf Dr Manfred Nowak, Global Campus of Human Rights, Italy, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (1993-2001), Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2004-10), Independent Expert for the United Nations Global Study on Children Deprived of Liberty (2016-)Right to Marry and to Found a Family Prof Dr Benjamin Kneihs, Paris Lodron University of Salzburg, AustriaRoma and SintiDr Helen O’Nions, Nottingham Trent University, United KingdomRule of LawPD Dr Till Patrik Holterhus, University of Göttingen, GermanySecurity, Right toProf Liora Lazarus, University of British Columbia, CanadaSelf-Determination, Right toDr Jane A Hofbauer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanySexual HarassmentVerena Pirker, Ombud for Equal Treatment, AustriaSexual OrientationProf Dr Andreas R Ziegler, University of Lausanne, SwitzerlandSexual RightsProf Alice M Miller, Yale University, USA & Deekshitha Ganesan, Independent ResearcherShariaDr Youcef Soufi, University of Toronto, CanadaSlaveryCornelia Schäffer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanySlavery, Slave Trade, Servitude and Forced Labour, Prohibition ofProf Jean Allain, Monash University, AustraliaSocial Security, Right toProf Dr Dominik Steiger, Technische Universität Dresden, Germany & Linus Mührel, Technische Universität Dresden, GermanySoft LawRina Kuusipalo, United Nations, PalestineSources of International LawProf Dr Gleider Hernández, KU Leuven, Belgium, Open Universiteit, The NetherlandsSouthern African Development Community (SADC)Prof Mwiza Jo Nkhata, University of the Free State, South AfricaSovereigntyProf Dr Robert Kolb, University of Geneva, SwitzerlandState ReportsProf Morten Kjærum, Raoul Wallenberg Institute of Human Rights and Humanitarian Law, SwedenState ResponsibilityDr Jane A Hofbauer, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, Germany & Dr Philipp Janig, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyStateless PersonsDr Caia Vlieks, Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, The Netherlands & Dr Laura van Waas, Institute on Statelessness and Inclusion, The NetherlandsSuccession into Human Rights Treaties Johannes Tropper, University of Vienna, AustriaSustainable DevelopmentDr Katalin Sulyok, Eötvös Loránd (ELTE) University, Hungary, Chief Legal Advisor to the Ombudsman for Future Generations, HungarySustainable Development GoalsProf Dr Alexandra R Harrington, Lancaster University, United KingdomTargeted KillingsProf Mary Ellen O’Connell, University of Notre Dame, USATargeted Sanctions Dr Finnur Magnusson, University of Iceland, IcelandTaxationCéline Braumann, University of Vienna, AustriaTerrorismDr Ralph Janik, University of Vienna, AustriaThird World Approaches to International Law (TWAIL)Prof José Manuel Barreto Soler, Catholic University of Colombia, ColombiaTorture, Prohibition ofProf Dr Manfred Nowak, Global Campus of Human Rights, Italy, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (1993-2001), Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2004-10), Independent Expert for the United Nations Global Study on Children Deprived of Liberty (2016-)Trade Union RightsDr Susan Kang, City University of New York, USATransitional JusticeDr Rainer Huhle, University of Erlangen- Nürnberg, Germany, Member of the Committee on Enforced Disappearances (2011-19)Transnational Corporations (TNCs)Prof Surya Deva, Macquarie University, Australia, Member of the Working Group on the Issue of Human Rights and Transnational Corporations and Other Business Enterprises (2016-22)TreatiesProf Dr Panos Merkouris, University of Groningen, The NetherlandsTreaty Interpretation Dr Felicity Attard, University of Malta, Malta & Prof Malgosia Fitzmaurice, Queen Mary University London, United KingdomTribunal of the Southern African Development Community (SADC Tribunal)Prof Mwiza Jo Nkhata, University of the Free State, South AfricaTruth, Right toJohannes Tropper, University of Vienna, AustriaTruth and Reconciliation Commissions (TRCs)Dr Elin Skaar, Chr. Michelsen Institute (CMI), NorwayUN Commission on Human Rights Adam Drnovsky, University of the Bundeswehr Munich, GermanyUnilateral Coercive MeasuresProf Dr Alena Douhan, Belarusian State University, Belarus, Special Rapporteur on the Negative Impact of Unilateral Coercive Measures on the Enjoyment of Human Rights (2020-)United Nations (UN)Prof Christopher Michaelsen, University of New South Wales, AustraliaUnited Nations Declaration on the Rights of Peasants and Other People Working in Rural AreasProf Dr Francesco Seatzu, University of Cagliari, ItalyUnited Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO)Prof Dr Gerd Oberleitner, University of Graz, AustriaUnited Nations Human Rights Council Eric Tistounet, Chief of the Human Rights Council Branch at the Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights, GenevaUnited Nations Millennium Declaration Tensin Studer, National University of Singapore, SingaporeUniversal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR)Prof Dr Manfred Nowak, Global Campus of Human Rights, Italy, Member of the Working Group on Enforced or Involuntary Disappearances (1993-2001), Special Rapporteur on Torture and Other Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (2004-10), Independent Expert for the United Nations Global Study on Children Deprived of Liberty (2016-)Universal Periodic Review (UPR)Dr Fiona McGaughey, University of Western Australia, AustraliaUniversalism and (Cultural) Relativism Dr Lars Grassmé Binderup, University of Southern Denmark, DenmarkUnmanned Aerial Vehicles (Drones)Prof Uzair Kayani, Lahore University of Management Sciences, Pakistan & Prof Sikander Ahmed Shah, Lahore University of Management Sciences, PakistanUrgent MeasuresProf Dr Yves Haeck, Programme for Studies on Human Rights in Context, Ghent University, Belgium & Prof Dr Clara Burbano-Herrera, Programme for Studies on Human Rights in Context, Ghent University, BelgiumVictims’ RightsProf Melanie Klinkner, Bournemouth University, United Kingdom & Dr Ellie Smith, Bournemouth University, United KingdomVienna Declaration and Programme of ActionDr Christian Strohal, Ministry of Foreign Affairs, AustriaViolence Against Women and Domestic ViolenceDr Dubravka Šimonović, Croatia, Special Rapporteur on Violence against Women, Its Causes and Consequences (2015-21)Water, Right toProf Dr Pierre Thielbörger, Ruhr University Bochum, GermanyWeapons, International Regulations onDr Stuart Casey-Maslen, Global Fellowship Initiative, Geneva Centre for Security Policy (GCSP), SwitzerlandWeapons of Mass DestructionDr Nobuo Hayashi, Swedish Defence University, SwedenWhistleblowersProf David Lewis, University of Middlesex, United KingdomWomenDr Meghan Campbell, University of Birmingham, United KingdomWork, Right toProf Dr Nicolas Bueno, UniDistance Suisse, SwitzerlandWork, Right to Just and Favourable Conditions ofProf Ben Saul, University of Sydney, AustraliaWorking Groups (Special Procedures) Jared Genser, Perseus Strategies, USA, Special Adviser on the Responsibility toProtect to Secretary General Luis Almagro of the Organization of American States (2020-) & Brian Tronic, Perseus Strategies, USAWorld Bank GroupDr Dimitri Van Den Meerssche, University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom