Earth Environments

David Huddart, PhD, is Emeritus Professor and former Associate Dean of Research and Knowledge Transfer at Liverpool John Moores University, UK. Tim A. Stott, PhD, is Professor of Physical Geography and Outdoor Education at Liverpool John Moores University, UK.

• About the Companion Website xxiiiIntroduction xxvSection I Introduction to Earth Systems 11 Introduction to Earth Systems 31.1 Introduction to Earth’s Formation 41.2 Introduction to Earth Spheres 51.3 Scales in Space and Time 71.4 Systems and Feedback 81.5 Open and Closed Flow Systems 91.6 Equilibrium in Systems 111.7 Time Cycles in Systems 13Section II Atmospheric and Ocean Systems 172 Structure and Composition of the Atmosphere 192.1 Structure of the Atmosphere 202.2 Composition of the Atmosphere 212.3 Carbon Dioxide and Methane 232.4 Water Vapour 243 Energy in the Atmosphere and the Earth Heat Budget 273.1 Introduction 283.2 Solar Radiation 284 Moisture in the Atmosphere 414.1 Introduction 424.2 The Global Hydrological Cycle 424.3 Air Stability and Instability 464.4 Clouds 484.5 Precipitation 495 Atmospheric Motion 555.1 Introduction 565.2 Atmospheric Pressure 565.3 Winds and Pressure Gradients 585.4 The Global Pattern of Atmospheric Circulation 626 Weather Systems 676.1 Introduction 686.2 Macroscale Synoptic Systems 686.3 Meso‐Scale: local Winds 816.4 Microclimates 836.5 Weather Observation and Forecasting 897 World Climates 997.1 Introduction 1007.2 Classification of Climate 1008 Ocean Structure and Circulation Patterns 1138.1 Introduction 1148.2 Physical Structure of the Oceans 1148.3 Temperature Structure of the Oceans 1178.4 Ocean Circulation 1178.5 Sea‐Level Change 1219 Atmospheric Evolution 1259.1 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 12610 Principles of Climate Change 13110.1 Introduction 13210.2 Evidence for Climate Change 13310.3 Causes of Climate Change 145Section III Endogenic Geological Systems 15911 Earth Materials: Mineralogy, Rocks and the Rock Cycle 16111.1 What is a Mineral? 16211.2 Rocks and the Rock Cycle 17311.3 Vulcanicity and Igneous Rocks 17511.4 Sedimentary Rocks, Fossils and Sedimentary Structures 17611.5 Metamorphic Rocks 18712 The Internal Structure of the Earth 19112.1 Introduction 19212.2 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Drilling 19212.3 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Volcanoes 19312.4 Evidence of Earth’s Composition from Meteorites 19412.5 Using Earthquake Seismic Waves as Earth Probes 19413 Plate Tectonics and Volcanism: Processes, Products, and Landforms 19913.1 Introduction 20013.2 Global Tectonics: how Plates, Basins, and Mountains are Created 20013.3 Volcanic Processes and the Global Tectonic Model 20413.4 Magma Eruption 21513.5 Explosive Volcanism 22013.6 Petrographic Features of Volcaniclastic Sediments 22813.7 Transport and Deposition of Pyroclastic Materials 22813.8 The Relationship Between Volcanic Processes and the Earth’s Atmosphere and Climate 23813.9 Plate Tectonics, Uniformitarianism and Earth History 24514 Geotectonics: Processes, Structures, and Landforms 25514.1 Introduction 25614.2 Tectonic Structures 25614.3 Tectonic Structures as Lines of Weakness in Landscape Evolution 263Section IV Exogenic Geological Systems 26515 Weathering Processes and Products 26715.1 Introduction 26815.2 Physical or Mechanical Weathering 27015.3 Chemical Weathering 28115.4 Measuring Weathering Rates 29315.5 Weathering Landforms 29516 Slope Processes and Morphology 29916.1 Introduction 30016.2 Slopes: Mass Movement 30016.3 Hillslope Hydrology and Slope Processes 32916.4 Slope Morphology and its Evolution 33617 Fluvial Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 34917.1 Introduction 35017.2 Loose Boundary Hydraulics 35017.3 The Energy of a River and Its Ability to Do Work 35317.4 Transport of the Sediment Load 35317.5 Types of Sediment Load 35517.6 River Hydrology 35617.7 The Drainage Basin 35817.8 Drainage Patterns and their Interpretation 36217.9 Fluvial Channel Geomorphology 36218 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Karst Processes and Landforms 41118.1 Introduction 41218.2 Carbonate Sedimentary Environments and Carbonate Rock Characteristics 41218.3 Evaporites 43018.4 Carbonate Facies Models 43018.5 Karst Processes 43519 Coastal Processes, Landforms, and Sediments 46719.1 Introduction to the Coastal Zone 46819.2 Sea Waves, Tides, and Tsunamis 47019.3 Tides 47619.4 Tsunamis 48019.5 Coastal Landsystems 48519.6 Distribution of Coastal Land systems 52719.7 The Impact of Climatic Change on Coastal Landsystems: What Lies in the Future? 53020 Glacial Processes and Land Systems 53520.1 Introduction 53620.2 Mass Balance and Glacier Formation 53820.3 Mass Balance and Glacier Flow 54620.4 Surging Glaciers 54820.5 Processes of Glacial Erosion and Deposition 55220.6 Glacial Landsystems 57421 Periglacial Processes and Landform‐Sediment Assemblages 60521.1 Introduction to the Term ‘Periglacial’ 60621.2 Permafrost 60621.3 Periglacial Processes and Landforms 60921.4 Frost Heaving and Frost Thrusting 61221.5 Landforms Associated with Frost Sorting 61421.6 Needle Ice Development 61521.7 Frost Cracking and the Development of Ice Wedges 61521.8 Growth of Ground Ice and Its Decay, and the Development of Pingos, Thufurs, and Palsas 62021.9 Processes Associated with Snowbanks (Nivation Processes) 62621.10 Cryoplanation or Altiplanation Processes and Their Resultant Landforms 62821.11 The Development of Tors 63321.12 Slope Processes Associated with the Short Summer Melt Season 63821.13 Cambering and Associated Structures 64521.14 Wind Action in a Periglacial Climate 64521.15 Fluvial Processes in a Periglacial Environment 64821.16 Alluvial Fans in a Periglacial Region 65021.17 An Overview of the Importance of Periglacial Processes in Shaping the Landscape of Upland Britain 65221.18 The Periglaciation of Lowland Britain 65422 Aeolian (Wind) Processes and Landform-Sediment Assemblages 65522.1 Introduction 65622.2 Current Controls on Wind Systems 65722.3 Sediment Entrainment and Processes of Sand Movement 65722.4 Processes of Wind Transport 65922.5 Aeolian Bedforms 66122.6 Dune and Aeolian Sediments 67722.7 Dust and Loess Deposition 67822.8 Wind Erosion Landforms 682Section V The Biosphere 68723 Principles of Ecology and Biogeography 68923.1 Introduction 69023.2 Why Do Organisms Live Where They Do? 69023.3 Components of Ecosystems 69423.4 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 69923.5 Food Chains and Webs 70423.6 Pathways of Mineral Matter (Biogeochemical Cycling) 70723.7 Vegetation Succession and Climaxes 71423.8 Concluding Remarks 73224 Soil-forming Processes and Products 73324.1 Introduction 73424.2 Controls on Soil Formation 73524.3 Soils as Systems 73824.4 Soil Profile Development 73924.5 Soil Properties 74424.6 Key Soil Types, with a Description and Typical Profile 75224.7 Podsolization: Theories 75624.8 Soil Classification 75724.9 Regional and Local Soil Distribution 75924.10 The Development of Dune Soils: An Example from the Sefton Coast 76824.11 The Development of Woodland Soils in Delamere Forest 77024.12 Intrazonal Soils Caused by Topographic Change 77024.13 Palaeosols 77125 World Ecosystems 77525.1 Introduction 77625.2 The Tundra Ecozone 77825.3 The Tropical (Equatorial) Rain Forest, or Humid Tropics Sensu Stricto, Ecozone 78625.4 The Seasonal Tropics or Savanna Ecozone 79325.5 Potential Effects of Global Warming on the World’s Ecozones 800Section VI Global Environmental Change: Past, Present and Future 80726 The Earth as a Planet: Geological Evolution and Change 80926.1 Introduction 81026.2 How Unique is the Earth as a Planet? 81026.3 What Do We Really Know About the Early Earth? 81126.4 The Early Geological Record 81126.5 The First Earth System 81526.6 How Did the Earth’s Core Form? 81726.7 Evolution of the Earth’s Mantle 81826.8 Evolution of the Continental Crust 82727 Atmospheric Evolution and Climate Change 83127.1 Evolution of Earth’s Atmosphere 83227.2 Future Climate Change 83328 Future Change in Ocean Circulation and the Hydrosphere 84328.1 Introduction 84428.2 Sea‐Level Change and the Supercontinental Cycle 84428.3 Projected Long‐Term Changes in the Ocean 84928.4 Future Changes in the Water Cycle 85029 Biosphere Evolution and Change 85529.1 Introduction 85629.2 Mechanisms of Evolution in the Fossil Record 85629.3 The Origins of Life 86029.4 An Outline History of the Earth’s Biospheric Evolution 86229.5 Mass Extinctions and Catastrophes in the History of Life on Earth 88730 Environmental Change: Greenhouse and Icehouse Earth Phases and Climates Prior to Recent Changes 89930.1 Introduction 90030.2 Early Glaciations in the Proterozoic Phase of the Pre‐Cambrian (the Snowball Earth Hypothesis) 90030.3 Examples of Changes from Greenhouse to Icehouse Climates in the Earth’s Past 90830.4 Late Cenozoic Ice Ages: Rapid Climate Change in the Quaternary 92230.5 Late Glacial Climates and Evidence for Rapid Change 93230.6 The Medieval Warm Period (MWP) or Medieval Climate Optimum and the LIA 94231 Global Environmental Change in the Future 95131.1 Introduction 95231.2 Future Climate Change 95231.3 Change in the Geosphere 95531.4 Change in the Oceans and Hydrosphere 95831.5 Change in the Biosphere 95931.6 A Timeline for Future Earth 96031.7 Causes for Future Optimism? 96131.8 Concluding Remarks 965Index 967

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