Diatom Cultivation for Biofuel, Food and High-Value Products

Vandana Vinayak is an assistant professor in the School of Applied Sciences, Dr. Hari Singh Gour Vishwavidhyalaya University, Sagar, Madhya Pradesh, India. Her research focuses on diatom nanoengineering, sustainable algal technologies, and valorization. She has published more than 50 research articles, 20 review articles, 12 book chapters, and two published patents. Vinayak has won the Women Scientist Award and the Noel Gold Medal Award. Richard Gordon involvement with diatoms goes back to 1970, when his capillarity model for their gliding motility was published in the Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. He later worked on a diffusion-limited aggregation model for diatom morphogenesis, which led to the first paper ever published on diatom nanotechnology in 1988. He organized the first workshop on diatom nanotech in 2003.

• Preface xvAcknowledgements xixPart I: Culture Methods 11 Adaptation of Chitosan-Based Harvesting Methods for Flocculation of Microalgae 3Mainavi Patel, Hirak Parikh and Gayatri Dave1.1 Microalgae 41.2 Microalgae Cultivation and Challenges 41.3 Microalgae Harvesting: Technological Limitations and Needs 61.4 Harvesting Methods 71.5 Chitosan as Natural Flocculant 91.6 Chitosan in Conjunction with Other Physicochemical Methods 121.6.1 Electroflotation and Mechanical Stirring 121.6.2 Electroflocculation 131.6.3 Synergistic Effects of Chitosan and Inorganic Flocculants 141.6.4 Integrated Flocculation 141.7 Comparison of Different Harvesting Methods 151.8 Conclusion 15References 162 Diatoms Cultivation: Trends, Scope and Technoeconomic Prospects 21Anshuman Rai, Nirmala Sehrawat, Mukesh Yadav, Varruchi Sharma, Vikas Kumar and Anil K. Sharma2.1 Introduction 222.2 Cultivation Strategy and Production 242.3 Design and Implementation of a Prototype Algal Reactor 272.4 Potential of Diatoms as a Source of Biofuel with Value-Added Products 292.4.1 Diatoms in the Biofuels Industry 302.4.2 Medical Applications 312.5 Industrial Aspects of Diatoms as a Source of Biofuel 312.5.1 Biomedical Industrial Aspects 322.6 Economic Feasibility Assessment 322.7 Biochemical Composition 332.8 Feedstock Availability Assessment 372.9 Scope of Diatoms in Biorefinery 382.10 Conclusions and Future Prospects 39Acknowledgment 40Human and Animal Rights and Informed Consent 40References 403 Biochemical Compounds in Phaeodactylum tricornutum 51Vandana Sirotiya and Vandana Vinayak3.1 Introduction 523.2 Biochemical Compounds 593.2.1 Pigments 593.2.2 Proteins 613.2.2.1 Hydrolysates 613.2.2.2 Chlorophyll Proteins: 10-Hydroxy-Phaeophorbide A and Phaeophorbide A 623.2.3 Carbohydrates 623.2.3.1 Chrysolaminarin 623.2.3.2 Exopolysaccharides (EPSs) 623.2.3.3 Sulfated Polysaccharides 633.2.4 Lipids 633.2.5 Fatty Acids 643.2.5.1 Omega-3 Fatty Acids 653.3 Demand, Valorization and Biotechnological Applications 663.4 Conclusion 68References 69Part II: High-Value Products 794 Diatoms: A Natural Resource of High-Valued Products and their Future Prospective 81Khushboo Kesharwani, Shruti Sharma, Aanand Kautu, Satyendra Kumar Tripathi, Vikas Kumar and Khashti Ballabh Joshi4.1 Introduction 824.1.1 Diatom Morphology 854.1.2 General Features of Oil Bodies in Diatoms 854.2 Biosilicification and Silicification as a Crucial Application in Bone Repair 894.3 Effect of Metals as a Therapeutic Application on Diatom Frustules 904.4 Successful Deposition of Metals on Diatom Frustules 914.4.1 Germanium 914.4.2 Titanium 914.4.3 Calcium 914.4.4 Strontium 924.5 Biomedical and Environmental Applications 924.5.1 Biomedical Applications 924.5.2 Environmental Applications 934.6 Deposition of Different Metal Nanoparticles for Various Applications 944.6.1 Iron Oxide Nanoparticles 954.6.2 Silver Nanoparticles 954.6.3 Gold Nanoparticles 984.6.4 Titanium Nanoparticle 994.6.5 Magnetite Nanoparticles 994.7 Interaction of Diatoms with Peptides and Their Plausible Applications 1004.8 Diafuel: A Diatom Application with the Most Potential 1014.9 Conclusion 102Acknowledgments 102References 1025 Diatom Cell Wall: Nature Engineered Nanostructures 115Sakshi Phogat, Rashi Tyagi, Abhishek Saxena, Pankaj Kumar Singh and Archana Tiwari5.1 Introduction 1165.2 Nature of Diatom Cell Wall 1175.2.1 Biosilicification 1185.2.2 Applications 1195.3 Purification of Diatoms 1215.3.1 Principle 1215.3.2 Process 1215.3.3 Purification of Raw DE Silica 1225.4 Nutritive and High-End Product 1225.5 Biofuel Industry 1265.6 Factors of Diatom for Producing Biofuel 1265.7 Biomedical Industry 1275.8 DE Silica for Tissue Engineering 1275.9 Nanotechnologically Derived Smart Drug Delivery System 1285.10 Future Perspective 1325.11 Conclusion 132References 1336 Biochemical Engineering of Diatoms for Health Benefits 139Rishabh Rathore, Pragati Verma, Sonali Raghdale, Avishek Kumar, Mohd Jahir Khan and Vandana Vinayak6.1 Introduction 1406.1.1 Diatom Pigments 1406.1.2 Diatoms’ Nutritional Value 1416.1.3 Diatoms as Bio-Indicators 1416.1.4 Metal Toxicity 1426.2 Chemical Composition of Diatom Biomass 1426.2.1 Carbohydrate 1436.2.2 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid (PUFA) 1446.2.3 Pigments 1456.3 Microalgae as Hidden Treasure of Novel Drugs for Good Health 1466.3.1 Drugs from Microalgae 1476.3.2 As a Feed for Aquaculture 1496.3.3 Diatoms in Drug Delivery 1516.4 Microalgal Drugs in Preventing Viral Pandemics 1536.5 Conclusions 156References 1577 Metabolism and Transcriptome Stress in Diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum for Value-Added Products 167Urvashi Soni, Sonali Rahangdale, Megha Mourya and Vandana Vinayak7.1 Introduction 1687.2 Commercial Market Value 1707.2.1 Industrial Applications 1707.2.2 Types of Foods with Health Benefits from Diatoms 1727.3 Metabolic Pathways and Mechanisms for Synthesis of High Value Added Products in Diatoms 1737.3.1 Carbon Dioxide Fixation 1747.3.2 Photorespiration and Glyoxylate Metabolism 1767.3.3 Reductive/Oxidative Pentose Phosphate Pathway 1767.3.4 Glycolysis 1777.3.5 Storage Products Synthesis and Degradation 1777.3.6 Inositol and Propionate Pathway 1787.3.7 Biosynthesis Production of Carotenoid in P. tricornutum Diatoms 1787.4 Light Stress in Diatoms and Fucoxanthin Biosynthesis 1797.5 Transcriptomics in Diatoms 1867.5.1 Steps in Transcriptomics Sequencing 1877.5.2 Transcriptomic Studies in Phaeodactylum tricornutum Under Various Influential Factors 1877.6 Conclusions 189References 1908 Terraforming Mars with Microalgae, Especially Diatoms 203Ira Rai, Jackson Achankunju, Richard Gordon and Vandana Vinayak8.1 Introduction 2048.2 Instrumentation to Artificially Simulate Life on Mars 2068.2.1 SpaceQ 2068.2.2 GraviSat Platform 2098.3 Diatoms for Long-Term Space Missions 2118.4 Potential Diatoms for the BLSS: Taxa Tolerant to Extreme Conditions 2128.5 Testing Diatom Growth Under Microgravity Conditions 2178.5.1 Microgravity and Living Organisms 2178.6 Life Support Systems for Space Missions 2208.7 Management of the Culture Vessel and Elements 2228.8 Conclusions 223Acknowledgments 223References 2239 Diatom: Source of Biofuel and Active Green Anode Material for Advanced Energy Storage Application 231Vivek Dalvi, Sumit Dhali and Anushree Malik9.1 Diatoms – Microalgae with Unique Structure and Properties 2329.2 Biofuel Application 2349.3 Diatom Silica: Material for Li-Ion Battery Anode 2379.4 Conclusion 239Acknowledgment 239References 240Part III: Low-Value Products 24510 Milking of Diatoms: A Realistic Approach to Serve the Biorefinery Concept 247Mrinal Kashyap10.1 Introduction 24810.2 Cell Disruption Methods 25010.2.1 Ultrasonication of Cells to Extract Value-Added Compounds 25010.2.2 Microwave-Assisted Cell Wall Disruption Method 25110.2.3 High-Pressure Homogenization 25110.2.4 Chemical Methods 25210.2.5 Pulsed Electric Field 25210.2.6 Milking of Diatoms 25310.3 Concept of Milking Cells for Value-Added Compounds 25410.3.1 Advancements in the Milking Approach 25410.4 Economic Perspectives of Biofuels and Cell Disruption 25710.5 Prospects and Challenges of the Milking Process 25910.6 Conclusions 260References 26011 Dissection of Gene Expression Pattern and Metabolic Profile Under Enhanced Oil Production Conditions in Diatoms 267Geetanjali Kumawat, Pallavi Vyas, Sandhya Deora, Sneha Sabu, Amit Kumar Gupta, Mukesh Meena, Ashwani Kumar, Vandana Vinayak and HarishAbbreviations 26811.1 Introduction 26911.1.1 Why Algae Over Other Sources? 27011.1.2 Basic Cell Structure of Diatoms 27011.1.3 Why Diatoms? 27111.1.4 Percentage Lipid Extraction as Per Dry Cell Weight 27411.1.5 Aquatic Species Programme (ASP) 27511.2 Generalized Pathway for Lipid Biosynthesis in Diatoms 27611.3 Stress Conditions (Metabolites) Helping to Increase Oil Production 27811.3.1 Salt Stress 28411.3.2 Urea as a Nitrogen Source 28511.3.3 Nutrient Stress 28511.3.4 Light Stress 28611.3.5 Nanoparticle Stress 28611.3.6 Nitrogen Stress 28711.3.7 Phosphorus Stress 28811.3.8 Silicon Stress 28811.3.9 Temperature Stress 28911.3.10 POME-Based Biofuel 28911.4 Changes in Gene Expression in Diatoms During Stress Conditions 29011.5 Structural and Functional Aspect of Candidate Genes/ Enzymes of Lipid Biosynthesis Pathway 29411.6 Role of rDNA Technology in Improving Diatom Strains for Enhanced Lipid Production 297References 30112 Implications of Diatoms for Heavy Metal Bioremediation 323Varad Nagar, Vinay Aseri, Rushikesh Chopade, Pritam P. Pandit, Badal Mavry, Apoorva Singh, Garima Awasthi, Kumud Kant Awasthi and Mahipal Singh Sankhla12.1 Introduction 32412.2 Mechanism for Heavy Metal Removal by Diatoms 32612.3 Bioremediation and Biosorption of Heavy Metals 32612.4 Challenges 32812.5 Advantage of Diatoms Over Other Techniques and Algae 32912.6 Production of Diatoms on a Commercial Scale and Its Application 32912.7 Future Aspects 33312.8 Conclusion 334References 33413 Optimizing Bioenergy from Diatoms through Biofilms 341G. Saranya and T.V. Ramachandra13.1 Introduction 34213.2 Different Configurations of Biofilm Cultivation Systems 34413.3 Surface Materials for Biofilm Cultivation 34513.3.1 Biofilm Bioreactor Design 34613.3.2 Lab-Scale Biofilm Bioreactor 34613.3.3 Operating Conditions for Diatom Cultivation 34713.3.4 Field Biofilm Bioreactor 34713.3.5 Evaluation of Algal Growth in Biofilms Grown under Field Conditions 34813.3.6 Growth Dynamics of Lab-Cultivated Diatom and In-Field Bioreactor 34913.3.7 Isolation and Identification of Bacteria in Biofilm 35013.3.8 Bacterial Morphology Studies using DAPI 35113.3.9 Species Interaction during Biofilm Cultivation 35213.3.10 Biofilm Bacteria Identification through Molecular Sequencing 35213.3.11 Diatom Sampling and Analysis 35313.3.12 Biomass Yield and Productivity 35413.3.13 Statistical Analysis 35613.3.14 Optimization of Reaction Parameters for Direct Transesterification 35713.3.15 Direct Transesterification of the Field Harvested Biomass 36213.3.16 Biodiesel Extraction and Determination of Its Quality 36313.4 Microalgal Biorefinery 36513.4.1 Material Balance 36513.5 Conclusion and Future Perspectives 366Acknowledgments 367Funding 367Research Ethics 367Animal Ethics 368References 36814 Diatoms Characteristics and Mass Processing of Lipids for Biofuel Production 377Tawaf Ali Shah, Zhihe Li, Zhiyu Li and Andong Zhang14.1 Diatoms 37814.2 Reproduction 37914.3 Ecology and Distribution 37914.4 Morphology and Identification 38114.5 Diatom Age, Diversity and Ecological Functions 38114.6 Biofuel Production and Types of Biofuels 38314.6.1 First-Generation Biofuels 38414.6.2 Second-Generation Biofuels 38414.6.3 Third-Generation Biofuels 38414.6.4 Diatoms Mass and Lipids for Biofuel 38514.6.5 Growth, Biomass and Lipid Extraction 38814.7 Different Methods of Lipid Extraction for Biofuel 39014.7.1 Plastic Bubble Wrap for Diatom Cultivation 39014.7.2 Spontaneous Oozing 39114.7.3 Mechanical Pressure 39114.7.4 High-Pressure Homogenization 39114.7.5 Ball Milling 39214.7.6 Microwave Oven 39214.7.7 Transesterification 39214.8 Benefits of Diatoms 39314.9 Genetic Engineering and Metabolic Pathway Engineering 39314.10 Future Prospects 39414.11 Conclusion 395Acknowledgment and Funding 396Data Availability 396References 396Index 399