GARY R. MORRISON is a professor emeritus at Old Dominion University. STEVEN M. ROSS is a senior research scientist and professor at the Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University. JENNIFER R. MORRISON is an assistant professor at the Center for Research and Reform in Education at Johns Hopkins University. HOWARD K. KALMAN is an associate professor in strategic communication at Ithaca College.

• Preface xiAcknowledgments xivAbout the Authors xvChapter One Introduction to the Instructional Design Process 2Getting Started 2Why Instructional Design? 4What Is Instructional Design? 8Overview of Our Design Model 16Who's Who in the Instructional Design Process 20Answering the Critics 21Questions . . . Questions . . . Questions 23Summary 23The ID Process 24Application 25Answers 25References 25Chapter Two Identifying the Need for Instruction 28Getting Started 28Is Instruction the Answer? 30Needs Assessment 31Goal Analysis 41Performance Assessment 44Summary 45The ID Process 46Application 47Answers 48Quality Management 49Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 49References 50Chapter Three Learner and Contextual Analysis 52Getting Started 52Types of Learner Characteristics 54Contextual Analysis 63Summary 67The ID Process 67Application 68Answers 69Quality Management 69Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 69Potential Audience Misconceptions 71Orienting Context 71References 71Chapter Four Task Analysis 74Getting Started 74Task Analysis 76Topic Analysis 79Procedural Analysis 82The Critical Incident Method 90Conducting a Task Analysis 92Summary 95The ID Process 95Application 96Answer 96Quality Management 98Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 99References 101Chapter Five Instructional Objectives 104Getting Started 104Function of Objectives 104Three Objective Domains 106Developing Instructional Objectives 110Writing Objectives in the Cognitive Domain 111Writing Objectives for the Psychomotor Domain 117Writing Objectives for the Affective Domain 117Classifying Objectives 119Pros and Cons of Writing Objectives 121Summary 122The ID Process 122Application 123Answers 124Quality Management 124Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 125References 127Chapter Six Designing the Instruction: Sequencing 128Getting Started 128The Posner and Strike Sequencing Schemes 130Elaboration Theory Sequencing 136Content Expertise Sequencing 136Task Expertise Sequencing 136From Objectives to Sequencing 137Summary 137The ID Process 137Application 138Answers 138Quality Management 138Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 139References 140Chapter Seven Designing the Instruction: Strategies 142Getting Started 142Why Instructional Strategies? 144Prescriptions for Instructional Strategies 146Summary 159The ID Process 160Applications 161Answers 161Quality Management 162Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 162References 165Chapter Eight Designing the Instructional Message 170Getting Started 170Preinstructional Strategies 172Message Design for Text 176Pictures and Graphics in Instruction 183Effectiveness 183Graphical Signals 184Summary 191The ID Process 191Lean Instructional Design 191Applications 192Answers 192Quality Management 193Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 193References 195Chapter Nine Developing Instructional Materials 200Getting Started 200Starting the Development of the Instruction 200Heuristics for Developing Instruction 203Putting Pen to Paper or Fingers to Keyboard 207Group Presentations 217Self-Paced Learning 222Changing Roles 225Small-Group Formats 226Summary 229The ID Process 230Application 230Answer 231Quality Management 231Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 231References 232Chapter Ten Design Considerations for Technology-Based Instruction 238Getting Started 238Individualized Computer- and Web-Based Instruction 240Design Considerations for Individualized Computer and Web-Based Instruction 243Design Considerations for Group-Based Distance Instruction 255Summary 258The ID Process 258Application 259Answer 259Quality Management 259Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 260References 261Chapter Eleven The Many Faces of Evaluation 268Getting Started 268Purposes of Evaluation 270Relationship among Formative, Summative, and Confirmative Evaluations 274Relationship between Evaluation and Instructional Objectives 276Suggested Measures for Alternative Outcomes 277Validity and Reliability of Tests 277Standards of Achievement 282Student Self-Evaluation 286Summary 288The ID Process 289Application 291Answer 291Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 291References 293Chapter Twelve Developing Evaluation Instruments 296Getting Started 296Testing Knowledge 298Testing Skills and Behavior 311Attitudes 323Summary 329The ID Process 329Applications 330Answers 330Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 331References 333Chapter Thirteen Using Evaluation to Enhance Programs: Conducting Formative and Summative Evaluations 334Getting Started 334A Basic Model for Formative Evaluation 336Types of Formative Evaluation 341Stages of Formative Evaluation 344Summative Evaluation: Determining Program Outcomes 345Program Effectiveness 347Program Efficiency 350Program Costs 351Confirmative Evaluation: Determining Outcomes Over Time 355Reporting Results of Summative and Confirmative Evaluations 359Summary 359The ID Process 360Application 362Answer 362Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 362References 364Chapter Fourteen Learning Theory and Instructional Theory 366Getting Started 366Introduction 368Learning Theory 369Summary 382The ID Process 383Application 385Answer 386Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 386References 387Chapter Fifteen Planning for Instructional Implementation 390Getting Started 390Planned Change 390The CLER Model 395Planning the Implementation with the CLER Model 399Tichy's TPC (Technical, Political, Cultural) Framework 401Developmental Stages and Information Decision Process Models 402Implementation Decisions 403Instructors 405Role of Supervisors 407Summary 408The ID Process 408Application 409Answers 409Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 410References 410Chapter Sixteen Instructional Design Project Management 412Getting Started 412Project Management 414Project Agreement and Proposal Preparation 422Instructional Design Shortcuts 427Flexibility of the Instructional Design Process 427Instructional Design in Organizations 427Working with the Subject-Matter Expert and Consultants 429Legal Considerations in ID Project Management 431Summary 434The ID Process 434Application 435Answers 435Instructional Design: Decisions and Choices 435References 436Appendix A Sample Instructional Design Documentation 439Appendix B A Sample Instructional Unit 449Glossary 459Index 463