Paul CHEUNG is a professor (practice) at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.LIU Jingting is a research fellow at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.Ulrike SENGSTSCHMID is a research analyst at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.

• List of FiguresList of TablesList of BoxesList of ContributorsAcknowledgementsList of AbbreviationsChapter 1 IntroductionPaul Cheung, Liu Jingting, Ulrike SengstschmidReferencesChapter 2 Emerging Divergence: Distinct Data Regulatory Models Around the WorldJesslene Lee2.1 Introduction2.2 Rule-Making through Trade Agreements2.2.1 Diffusion of Trade Rules2.2.2 Global Data Governance: Are Distinct Regulatory Regimes Emerging?2.3 Data Rules in Trade Agreements2.3.1 Data Protection2.3.2 Cross-Border Data Flows2.4 Assessing the Emergence of Distinct Regulatory Regimes2.4.1 Who are the Rule-Makers?2.4.2 Diverging Priorities on Salient Issues2.5 Where does ASEAN Stand?2.6 ConclusionReferencesAppendixChapter 3 Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Charting the Future of India’s Data RegulationNidhi Gupta, Ammu George3.1 Introduction3.2 Analysis of the Provisions of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 20233.2.1 Scope of the Act is Ambiguous when Defining “Person”3.2.2 Extensive Rights Provided to Data Principals3.2.3 Obligations Mandated from Data Fiduciaries3.2.4 Establishment of the Data Protection Board of India3.3. Implications of the DPDP Act for Digital Businesses3.3.1 Pro-Business Provisions of the DPDP Act3.3.2 Provisions of the DPDP Act Negatively Impacting Businesses3.4. ConclusionReferencesChapter 4 China’s Cross-Border Data Flow Policies and Implications for InvestmentsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan4.1 Introduction4.2 Overview of China’s Data Protection Legal Framework4.2.1 Mechanisms for Transferring Data Out of China4.2.2 Users’ Rights4.3 Comparing the PIPL and GDPR4.3.1 Similarities4.3.2. Differences4.3.3 Comparing Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms4.4 Implications4.4.1 Increasing Operating Costs4.4.2 Increasing Market Concentration4.4.3 Competitiveness and Innovation4.4.4 Regulatory Restrictions and Investments4.4.5 How Firms are Adjusting to the Regulations4.5 Looking Ahead: China and the Global Policy Environment4.6 ConclusionReferencesChapter 5 Improving the Digital Connectivity Between South Korea and ASEAN Through DataJi Eun Song, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ni Xu, Ge Yixuan, Liu Jingting5.1 Introduction5.2 Data Regulation in South Korea5.2.1 Overview of South Korea’s Data Regulation: Comparison with Rest of the World5.2.2 Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA)5.3. Cross-border data flows between South Korea and the Rest of the World: Challenges5.4. Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms of South Korea5.4.1. Major Global Data Governance Frameworks5.4.2. Free Trade Agreements5.4.3 Certification5.4.4 Adequacy Decision5.5 Cross-border Data Transfer Between Korea and ASEAN5.5.1 A Comparison Between Korea and Singapore5.6. Policy Outlook: Greater Engagement5.7. ConclusionReferencesChapter 6 Vietnam – Striking a Balance Between National Security and External PressuresBanh Thi Hang, Phan Thi Hong Hanh6.1. Introduction6.2. Fundamental Data Regulations in Vietnam6.2.1. Taxonomy of Data Regulations6.2.2. Overview of Data Governance in Vietnam6.3. Comparing Data Regulations in Vietnam's Domestic Regulations and Multilateral Agreements6.3.1 Comparison in Key Areas of Data Regulations6.3.2 Conformity Analysis6.4. A Comparison with Other Countries6.4.1 Data Localisation6.4.2 Cross-Border Data Flow6.4.3 Privacy and Data Protection6.5. ConclusionReferencesAppendicesAppendix 6.1. Developments of Data Localisation Requirement in the EUAppendix 6.2. Cross-Border Data Transfer Regulations in the USChapter 7 Facilitating Data Flows Across ASEAN: Challenges and Policy DirectionsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan7.1 Introduction7.2 Literature Review7.2.1 Far-Reaching Impacts of Cross-Border Data Flow Regulations7.2.2 Challenges for ASEAN Businesses Posed by Data Regulations7.2.3 External Influences on Data Regulation7.3 ASEAN’s Diverse Personal Data Protection Landscape7.3.1 The Open, Conditional, and Control Model of Data Governance7.4 Remaining Obstacles for Businesses in Cross-Border Data Flows7.4.1 ASEAN Model Contractual Clauses: Modifications & Legal Status7.4.2 Interoperability Roadblocks: Incompatibility in National Legislations7.4.3 Data Compliance Disparity: Unique Challenges for SMEs7.5 Vietnam’s New Personal Data Protection Decree7.6 Future Policy Directions7.6.1 Growing External Influence7.6.2 Policy Roadmap7.7 ConclusionReferencesChapter 8 Further Steps for ASEAN’s Digital Integration: DEFALiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid8.1 Key Takeaways8.1.1 Policy Fragmentation Carries over into the Digital Governance Space8.1.2. ASEAN’s Asian Trading Partners Lean Towards the Conditional Model8.1.3. Intra-ASEAN Fragmentation Challenges Digital Integration8.1.4. Ambiguity Abounds in Regional Mechanisms8.2. DEFA: ASEAN’s Opportunity to Write Own Rules and Upgrade Digital Integration8.3. Limitations: Working in an Evolving Policy SpaceReferences

Paul CHEUNG is a professor (practice) at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.LIU Jingting is a research fellow at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.Ulrike SENGSTSCHMID is a research analyst at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.

• List of FiguresList of TablesList of BoxesList of ContributorsAcknowledgementsList of AbbreviationsChapter 1 IntroductionPaul Cheung, Liu Jingting, Ulrike SengstschmidReferencesChapter 2 Emerging Divergence: Distinct Data Regulatory Models Around the WorldJesslene Lee2.1 Introduction2.2 Rule-Making through Trade Agreements2.2.1 Diffusion of Trade Rules2.2.2 Global Data Governance: Are Distinct Regulatory Regimes Emerging?2.3 Data Rules in Trade Agreements2.3.1 Data Protection2.3.2 Cross-Border Data Flows2.4 Assessing the Emergence of Distinct Regulatory Regimes2.4.1 Who are the Rule-Makers?2.4.2 Diverging Priorities on Salient Issues2.5 Where does ASEAN Stand?2.6 ConclusionReferencesAppendixChapter 3 Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Charting the Future of India’s Data RegulationNidhi Gupta, Ammu George3.1 Introduction3.2 Analysis of the Provisions of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 20233.2.1 Scope of the Act is Ambiguous when Defining “Person”3.2.2 Extensive Rights Provided to Data Principals3.2.3 Obligations Mandated from Data Fiduciaries3.2.4 Establishment of the Data Protection Board of India3.3. Implications of the DPDP Act for Digital Businesses3.3.1 Pro-Business Provisions of the DPDP Act3.3.2 Provisions of the DPDP Act Negatively Impacting Businesses3.4. ConclusionReferencesChapter 4 China’s Cross-Border Data Flow Policies and Implications for InvestmentsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan4.1 Introduction4.2 Overview of China’s Data Protection Legal Framework4.2.1 Mechanisms for Transferring Data Out of China4.2.2 Users’ Rights4.3 Comparing the PIPL and GDPR4.3.1 Similarities4.3.2. Differences4.3.3 Comparing Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms4.4 Implications4.4.1 Increasing Operating Costs4.4.2 Increasing Market Concentration4.4.3 Competitiveness and Innovation4.4.4 Regulatory Restrictions and Investments4.4.5 How Firms are Adjusting to the Regulations4.5 Looking Ahead: China and the Global Policy Environment4.6 ConclusionReferencesChapter 5 Improving the Digital Connectivity Between South Korea and ASEAN Through DataJi Eun Song, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ni Xu, Ge Yixuan, Liu Jingting5.1 Introduction5.2 Data Regulation in South Korea5.2.1 Overview of South Korea’s Data Regulation: Comparison with Rest of the World5.2.2 Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA)5.3. Cross-border data flows between South Korea and the Rest of the World: Challenges5.4. Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms of South Korea5.4.1. Major Global Data Governance Frameworks5.4.2. Free Trade Agreements5.4.3 Certification5.4.4 Adequacy Decision5.5 Cross-border Data Transfer Between Korea and ASEAN5.5.1 A Comparison Between Korea and Singapore5.6. Policy Outlook: Greater Engagement5.7. ConclusionReferencesChapter 6 Vietnam – Striking a Balance Between National Security and External PressuresBanh Thi Hang, Phan Thi Hong Hanh6.1. Introduction6.2. Fundamental Data Regulations in Vietnam6.2.1. Taxonomy of Data Regulations6.2.2. Overview of Data Governance in Vietnam6.3. Comparing Data Regulations in Vietnam's Domestic Regulations and Multilateral Agreements6.3.1 Comparison in Key Areas of Data Regulations6.3.2 Conformity Analysis6.4. A Comparison with Other Countries6.4.1 Data Localisation6.4.2 Cross-Border Data Flow6.4.3 Privacy and Data Protection6.5. ConclusionReferencesAppendicesAppendix 6.1. Developments of Data Localisation Requirement in the EUAppendix 6.2. Cross-Border Data Transfer Regulations in the USChapter 7 Facilitating Data Flows Across ASEAN: Challenges and Policy DirectionsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan7.1 Introduction7.2 Literature Review7.2.1 Far-Reaching Impacts of Cross-Border Data Flow Regulations7.2.2 Challenges for ASEAN Businesses Posed by Data Regulations7.2.3 External Influences on Data Regulation7.3 ASEAN’s Diverse Personal Data Protection Landscape7.3.1 The Open, Conditional, and Control Model of Data Governance7.4 Remaining Obstacles for Businesses in Cross-Border Data Flows7.4.1 ASEAN Model Contractual Clauses: Modifications & Legal Status7.4.2 Interoperability Roadblocks: Incompatibility in National Legislations7.4.3 Data Compliance Disparity: Unique Challenges for SMEs7.5 Vietnam’s New Personal Data Protection Decree7.6 Future Policy Directions7.6.1 Growing External Influence7.6.2 Policy Roadmap7.7 ConclusionReferencesChapter 8 Further Steps for ASEAN’s Digital Integration: DEFALiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid8.1 Key Takeaways8.1.1 Policy Fragmentation Carries over into the Digital Governance Space8.1.2. ASEAN’s Asian Trading Partners Lean Towards the Conditional Model8.1.3. Intra-ASEAN Fragmentation Challenges Digital Integration8.1.4. Ambiguity Abounds in Regional Mechanisms8.2. DEFA: ASEAN’s Opportunity to Write Own Rules and Upgrade Digital Integration8.3. Limitations: Working in an Evolving Policy SpaceReferences

Paul CHEUNG is a professor (practice) at the Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.LIU Jingting is a research fellow at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.Ulrike SENGSTSCHMID is a research analyst at the Asia Competitiveness Institute, Lee Kuan Yew School of Public Policy, National University of Singapore.

• List of FiguresList of TablesList of BoxesList of ContributorsAcknowledgementsList of AbbreviationsChapter 1 IntroductionPaul Cheung, Liu Jingting, Ulrike SengstschmidReferencesChapter 2 Emerging Divergence: Distinct Data Regulatory Models Around the WorldJesslene Lee2.1 Introduction2.2 Rule-Making through Trade Agreements2.2.1 Diffusion of Trade Rules2.2.2 Global Data Governance: Are Distinct Regulatory Regimes Emerging?2.3 Data Rules in Trade Agreements2.3.1 Data Protection2.3.2 Cross-Border Data Flows2.4 Assessing the Emergence of Distinct Regulatory Regimes2.4.1 Who are the Rule-Makers?2.4.2 Diverging Priorities on Salient Issues2.5 Where does ASEAN Stand?2.6 ConclusionReferencesAppendixChapter 3 Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023: Charting the Future of India’s Data RegulationNidhi Gupta, Ammu George3.1 Introduction3.2 Analysis of the Provisions of India’s Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 20233.2.1 Scope of the Act is Ambiguous when Defining “Person”3.2.2 Extensive Rights Provided to Data Principals3.2.3 Obligations Mandated from Data Fiduciaries3.2.4 Establishment of the Data Protection Board of India3.3. Implications of the DPDP Act for Digital Businesses3.3.1 Pro-Business Provisions of the DPDP Act3.3.2 Provisions of the DPDP Act Negatively Impacting Businesses3.4. ConclusionReferencesChapter 4 China’s Cross-Border Data Flow Policies and Implications for InvestmentsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan4.1 Introduction4.2 Overview of China’s Data Protection Legal Framework4.2.1 Mechanisms for Transferring Data Out of China4.2.2 Users’ Rights4.3 Comparing the PIPL and GDPR4.3.1 Similarities4.3.2. Differences4.3.3 Comparing Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms4.4 Implications4.4.1 Increasing Operating Costs4.4.2 Increasing Market Concentration4.4.3 Competitiveness and Innovation4.4.4 Regulatory Restrictions and Investments4.4.5 How Firms are Adjusting to the Regulations4.5 Looking Ahead: China and the Global Policy Environment4.6 ConclusionReferencesChapter 5 Improving the Digital Connectivity Between South Korea and ASEAN Through DataJi Eun Song, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ni Xu, Ge Yixuan, Liu Jingting5.1 Introduction5.2 Data Regulation in South Korea5.2.1 Overview of South Korea’s Data Regulation: Comparison with Rest of the World5.2.2 Personal Information Protection Act (PIPA)5.3. Cross-border data flows between South Korea and the Rest of the World: Challenges5.4. Cross-Border Data Transfer Mechanisms of South Korea5.4.1. Major Global Data Governance Frameworks5.4.2. Free Trade Agreements5.4.3 Certification5.4.4 Adequacy Decision5.5 Cross-border Data Transfer Between Korea and ASEAN5.5.1 A Comparison Between Korea and Singapore5.6. Policy Outlook: Greater Engagement5.7. ConclusionReferencesChapter 6 Vietnam – Striking a Balance Between National Security and External PressuresBanh Thi Hang, Phan Thi Hong Hanh6.1. Introduction6.2. Fundamental Data Regulations in Vietnam6.2.1. Taxonomy of Data Regulations6.2.2. Overview of Data Governance in Vietnam6.3. Comparing Data Regulations in Vietnam's Domestic Regulations and Multilateral Agreements6.3.1 Comparison in Key Areas of Data Regulations6.3.2 Conformity Analysis6.4. A Comparison with Other Countries6.4.1 Data Localisation6.4.2 Cross-Border Data Flow6.4.3 Privacy and Data Protection6.5. ConclusionReferencesAppendicesAppendix 6.1. Developments of Data Localisation Requirement in the EUAppendix 6.2. Cross-Border Data Transfer Regulations in the USChapter 7 Facilitating Data Flows Across ASEAN: Challenges and Policy DirectionsLiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid, Ge Yixuan7.1 Introduction7.2 Literature Review7.2.1 Far-Reaching Impacts of Cross-Border Data Flow Regulations7.2.2 Challenges for ASEAN Businesses Posed by Data Regulations7.2.3 External Influences on Data Regulation7.3 ASEAN’s Diverse Personal Data Protection Landscape7.3.1 The Open, Conditional, and Control Model of Data Governance7.4 Remaining Obstacles for Businesses in Cross-Border Data Flows7.4.1 ASEAN Model Contractual Clauses: Modifications & Legal Status7.4.2 Interoperability Roadblocks: Incompatibility in National Legislations7.4.3 Data Compliance Disparity: Unique Challenges for SMEs7.5 Vietnam’s New Personal Data Protection Decree7.6 Future Policy Directions7.6.1 Growing External Influence7.6.2 Policy Roadmap7.7 ConclusionReferencesChapter 8 Further Steps for ASEAN’s Digital Integration: DEFALiu Jingting, Ulrike Sengstschmid8.1 Key Takeaways8.1.1 Policy Fragmentation Carries over into the Digital Governance Space8.1.2. ASEAN’s Asian Trading Partners Lean Towards the Conditional Model8.1.3. Intra-ASEAN Fragmentation Challenges Digital Integration8.1.4. Ambiguity Abounds in Regional Mechanisms8.2. DEFA: ASEAN’s Opportunity to Write Own Rules and Upgrade Digital Integration8.3. Limitations: Working in an Evolving Policy SpaceReferences