Sverre Bagge is professor emeritus of medieval history at the University of Bergen in Norway. His books include Kings, Politics, and the Right Order of the World in German Historiography.

• Acknowledgments vii Introduction 1 CHAPTER ONE 9 The Origins of the Scandinavian Kingdoms Early Scandinavian Society 9 Scandinavian Expansion: The Viking Expeditions 21 The Division of Scandinavia into Three Kingdoms 27 The Continued Division of Scandinavia: Foreign Policy until around 1300 38 CHAPTER TWO 50 The Consolidation of the Scandinavian Kingdoms, c. 1050-1350 The Dynasty and the Royal Office 50 Religion: The Introduction of Christianity 60 The Development of the Ecclesiastical Organization 70 Justice: Royal and Ecclesiastical Legislation and Courts of Law 86 War and the Preparation for War: From Leding to Professional Forces 107 CHAPTER THREE 119 State Formation, Social Change, and the Division of Power Social Structure in the High Middle Ages 120 Royal and Ecclesiastical Revenues 124 Towns and Trade 131 Bureaucracy or Feudalism? 139 The Court 152 The Division of Power: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the Church 157 The State and the People: Nationalism and Loyalty 169 CHAPTER FOUR 174 Royal, Aristocratic, and Ecclesiastical Culture Scandinavians and European Learning 176 The Rules and the Hearts: Scandinavian Christianity 187 A Scandinavian Saint 196 The Writing of History 203 Political Thought 218 The Courtly Culture 222 CHAPTER FIVE 232 The Later Middle Ages: Agrarian Crisis, Constitutional Conflicts, and Scandinavian Unions Towards Renewed Scandinavian Integration, 1261-1397 236 The Kalmar Union 248 The Struggle over the Kalmar Union, 1434-1523 250 Why Was the Union Dissolved? 260 State Formation in the Later Middle Ages 268 The Reformation and Its Consequences, 1523-1537 283 CONCLUSION 290 Scandinavian State Formation, 900-1537: Break and Continuity Literature 293 The Historiography of the Scandinavian Countries 293 The Sources for Scandinavian History 297 References and Guide to Further Reading 301 Index 315

"Bagge, one of the world's pre-eminent medieval historians, offers an introductory survey of early Scandinavian history that will be a welcome addition in the classroom... Insightful, in-depth, and authoritative ... Bagge's scholarly work will be of great use to those with interest in this oft-forgotten civilization."--Publishers Weekly "Using clear language and avoiding narrowly academic concerns, Cross and Scepter is accessible to a broad audience. It will be useful to specialists wanting a regional perspective, but it also offers an excellent general overview for anyone curious about medieval Scandinavia after the Viking age."--Danny Yee, Danny Reviews "Bagge presents his research in this thought-provoking work, masterfully weaving together the complex formation of Scandinavian states in an informative yet entertaining fashion that takes readers through the beginning of state formation in the Viking Age to the Reformation and its effects on Scandinavia... Although the work is concise, Bagge's ability to present a detailed, well-researched history makes this an enjoyable read for general readers and scholars alike."--Choice

Sverre Bagge is professor emeritus of medieval history at the University of Bergen in Norway. His books include Kings, Politics, and the Right Order of the World in German Historiography.

• Acknowledgments vii Introduction 1 CHAPTER ONE 9 The Origins of the Scandinavian Kingdoms Early Scandinavian Society 9 Scandinavian Expansion: The Viking Expeditions 21 The Division of Scandinavia into Three Kingdoms 27 The Continued Division of Scandinavia: Foreign Policy until around 1300 38 CHAPTER TWO 50 The Consolidation of the Scandinavian Kingdoms, c. 1050-1350 The Dynasty and the Royal Office 50 Religion: The Introduction of Christianity 60 The Development of the Ecclesiastical Organization 70 Justice: Royal and Ecclesiastical Legislation and Courts of Law 86 War and the Preparation for War: From Leding to Professional Forces 107 CHAPTER THREE 119 State Formation, Social Change, and the Division of Power Social Structure in the High Middle Ages 120 Royal and Ecclesiastical Revenues 124 Towns and Trade 131 Bureaucracy or Feudalism? 139 The Court 152 The Division of Power: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the Church 157 The State and the People: Nationalism and Loyalty 169 CHAPTER FOUR 174 Royal, Aristocratic, and Ecclesiastical Culture Scandinavians and European Learning 176 The Rules and the Hearts: Scandinavian Christianity 187 A Scandinavian Saint 196 The Writing of History 203 Political Thought 218 The Courtly Culture 222 CHAPTER FIVE 232 The Later Middle Ages: Agrarian Crisis, Constitutional Conflicts, and Scandinavian Unions Towards Renewed Scandinavian Integration, 1261-1397 236 The Kalmar Union 248 The Struggle over the Kalmar Union, 1434-1523 250 Why Was the Union Dissolved? 260 State Formation in the Later Middle Ages 268 The Reformation and Its Consequences, 1523-1537 283 CONCLUSION 290 Scandinavian State Formation, 900-1537: Break and Continuity Literature 293 The Historiography of the Scandinavian Countries 293 The Sources for Scandinavian History 297 References and Guide to Further Reading 301 Index 315

"Bagge, one of the world's pre-eminent medieval historians, offers an introductory survey of early Scandinavian history that will be a welcome addition in the classroom... Insightful, in-depth, and authoritative ... Bagge's scholarly work will be of great use to those with interest in this oft-forgotten civilization."--Publishers Weekly "Using clear language and avoiding narrowly academic concerns, Cross and Scepter is accessible to a broad audience. It will be useful to specialists wanting a regional perspective, but it also offers an excellent general overview for anyone curious about medieval Scandinavia after the Viking age."--Danny Yee, Danny Reviews "Bagge presents his research in this thought-provoking work, masterfully weaving together the complex formation of Scandinavian states in an informative yet entertaining fashion that takes readers through the beginning of state formation in the Viking Age to the Reformation and its effects on Scandinavia... Although the work is concise, Bagge's ability to present a detailed, well-researched history makes this an enjoyable read for general readers and scholars alike."--Choice

Sverre Bagge is professor emeritus of medieval history at the University of Bergen in Norway. His books include Kings, Politics, and the Right Order of the World in German Historiography.

• Acknowledgments vii Introduction 1 CHAPTER ONE 9 The Origins of the Scandinavian Kingdoms Early Scandinavian Society 9 Scandinavian Expansion: The Viking Expeditions 21 The Division of Scandinavia into Three Kingdoms 27 The Continued Division of Scandinavia: Foreign Policy until around 1300 38 CHAPTER TWO 50 The Consolidation of the Scandinavian Kingdoms, c. 1050-1350 The Dynasty and the Royal Office 50 Religion: The Introduction of Christianity 60 The Development of the Ecclesiastical Organization 70 Justice: Royal and Ecclesiastical Legislation and Courts of Law 86 War and the Preparation for War: From Leding to Professional Forces 107 CHAPTER THREE 119 State Formation, Social Change, and the Division of Power Social Structure in the High Middle Ages 120 Royal and Ecclesiastical Revenues 124 Towns and Trade 131 Bureaucracy or Feudalism? 139 The Court 152 The Division of Power: Monarchy, Aristocracy, and the Church 157 The State and the People: Nationalism and Loyalty 169 CHAPTER FOUR 174 Royal, Aristocratic, and Ecclesiastical Culture Scandinavians and European Learning 176 The Rules and the Hearts: Scandinavian Christianity 187 A Scandinavian Saint 196 The Writing of History 203 Political Thought 218 The Courtly Culture 222 CHAPTER FIVE 232 The Later Middle Ages: Agrarian Crisis, Constitutional Conflicts, and Scandinavian Unions Towards Renewed Scandinavian Integration, 1261-1397 236 The Kalmar Union 248 The Struggle over the Kalmar Union, 1434-1523 250 Why Was the Union Dissolved? 260 State Formation in the Later Middle Ages 268 The Reformation and Its Consequences, 1523-1537 283 CONCLUSION 290 Scandinavian State Formation, 900-1537: Break and Continuity Literature 293 The Historiography of the Scandinavian Countries 293 The Sources for Scandinavian History 297 References and Guide to Further Reading 301 Index 315

"Bagge, one of the world's pre-eminent medieval historians, offers an introductory survey of early Scandinavian history that will be a welcome addition in the classroom... Insightful, in-depth, and authoritative ... Bagge's scholarly work will be of great use to those with interest in this oft-forgotten civilization."--Publishers Weekly "Using clear language and avoiding narrowly academic concerns, Cross and Scepter is accessible to a broad audience. It will be useful to specialists wanting a regional perspective, but it also offers an excellent general overview for anyone curious about medieval Scandinavia after the Viking age."--Danny Yee, Danny Reviews "Bagge presents his research in this thought-provoking work, masterfully weaving together the complex formation of Scandinavian states in an informative yet entertaining fashion that takes readers through the beginning of state formation in the Viking Age to the Reformation and its effects on Scandinavia... Although the work is concise, Bagge's ability to present a detailed, well-researched history makes this an enjoyable read for general readers and scholars alike."--Choice