Corrosion in Concrete Structures

Ruby Aslam, PhD is a Postdoctoral fellow in the School of Civil and Hydraulic Engineering, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. She has authored and co-authored more than 100 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals and edited 17 books. Her research focuses on corrosion inhibitors, ionic liquids, and colloid and surface science. Qihui Wang, PhD works in the School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. His research focuses on the development and application of green corrosion inhibitors and theoretical calculations to explain the anti-corrosion mechanism of green corrosion inhibitors against metals. Zhitao Yan, PhD is a Professor in the School of Civil Engineering and Architecture at the Chongqing University of Science and Technology, Chongqing, China. He has authored and co-authored more than 170 research articles in international peer-reviewed journals, authorized 57 Chinese patents, and published three monographs. His research interests include structure wind engineering, nonlinear vibration, and transmission tower line systems. Afroz Aslam, PhD is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, the Constituent Government College, Rohilkhand University, Bareilly, U.P. India. She has published many research articles and chapters in peer-reviewed international journals. Her research is mainly focused on organic synthesis, materials and corrosion, phytochemistry, and heterocyclic catalysis.

• Preface xv1 Corrosion Fundamentals: Understanding the Science Behind the Damage 1Kaoutar Zaidi, Walid Daoudi, Selma Lamghafri, Omar Dagdag, Abdelmalik El Aatiaoui and Abdelouahad Aouinti1.1 Introduction 21.2 Basic Chemistry of Corrosion 31.2.1 Electrochemical Nature of Corrosion 31.2.2 Chemical Reaction of Corrosion 31.3 Types of Corrosion 51.3.1 Uniform Corrosion 51.3.2 Pitting Corrosion 61.3.3 Crevice Corrosion 71.3.4 Intergranular Corrosion 71.3.5 Stress Corrosion 81.4 Electrochemical Corrosion Mechanisms 81.5 Corrosion-Inducing Factors 101.6 Conclusion 11References 112 Concrete Material Properties and Corrosion 13Rajae Salim, Jamila Lazrak, Elhachmia Ech-chihbi, Walid Ettahiri, Charafeddine Jama, Belkheir Hammouti and Mustapha Taleb2.1 Introduction 142.1.1 Urban Infrastructures 152.1.2 Residential Sector 162.1.3 Commercial and Industrial Buildings 172.1.4 Agricultural Application 172.1.5 Sustainable Construction 182.2 Importance of Steel in Concrete 182.2.1 Strength Enhancement 192.2.2 Environmental Considerations 192.3 Material Properties of Concrete 202.3.1 Compressive Strength 202.3.2 Durability 222.3.3 Permeability and Porosity 232.3.4 Workability 242.3.5 Shrinkage and Creep 252.3.6 Tensile Strength 262.3.7 Modulus of Elasticity 262.3.8 Thermal Properties 272.4 Corrosion Properties of Steel in Concrete 282.4.1 Electrochemical Properties 292.4.2 Concrete Permeability 302.4.3 Chemical Properties 312.4.4 Mechanical Properties 322.4.5 Physical Properties 322.5 Causes of Concrete Corrosion 332.5.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 342.5.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 342.6 Consequences of Concrete Corrosion 352.6.1 Degradation of the Embedding Concrete 352.6.2 Initiation of Reinforcement Corrosion 362.6.3 Development of Corrosion 362.6.4 Structures Affected by Corrosion of Concrete 362.7 Methods of Protecting Concrete against Corrosion 372.7.1 Using High-Quality Concrete mix 372.7.2 Coating Techniques 392.7.2.1 Electrocoating 392.7.2.2 Metallic Coatings 392.7.2.3 Organic Coatings 402.7.3 Galvanization Protection 412.7.3.1 Sacrificial Anodes 412.7.3.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) 422.7.3.3 Hybrid Cathodic Protection 432.7.4 Surface Treatments 432.7.4.1 Sealants and Coatings 432.7.4.2 Waterproof Membranes 442.7.5 Use of Corrosion Inhibitors 452.7.6 Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ECE) 452.7.7 Design and Construction Practices 462.7.7.1 Adequate Concrete Cover 462.7.7.2 Good Drainage Design 472.8 Techniques for Assessing Corrosion Concrete 482.9 Future Perspectives and Research Directions 522.10 Conclusion 52References 533 Fundamentals and Understanding of Corrosion-Prone Environments in Concrete Corrosion 59Demian I. Njoku, Annuncieta C. Njoku, Paul C. Uzoma, Ini-Ibehe Nabuk Etim and Inime I. Udoh3.1 Introduction 603.2 Factors That Contribute to Concrete Corrosion 613.3 Concrete Corrosion-Prone Environments 633.3.1 Moisture and Availability of Oxygen 633.3.2 Marine Environment 643.3.3 Industrial Environments 653.3.4 De-Icing Salt Environments 663.3.5 Underground Environments 673.3.6 Agricultural Environments 673.3.7 Coastal Environments 683.4 Distinctive Analysis of the Process of Concrete Corrosion 683.4.1 Mechanism Associated with the Acceleration of Concrete Corrosion 683.4.2 Reduction of Concrete Lifespan 703.5 Current Practices Used to Minimize Corrosion in Different Environments 713.5.1 Surface and Environmental Modification 713.5.2 Trends and Best Design Practices for Improvement in the Field of Concrete Corrosion Prevention and Mitigation 733.6 Cases of Failures due to Corrosion of Concrete Structures in Different Environments and the Mitigations 743.7 Conclusions 76Acknowledgment 77References 774 Corrosion Assessment and Inspection in Concrete Corrosion 85Ichraq Bouhouche, Khalid Bouiti, Nabil Lahrache, Najoua Labjar, Hamid Nasrellah, Said Laasri, Ayoub Cherrat and Souad El Hajjaji4.1 Introduction to Corrosion Assessment and Inspection 864.1.1 Overview of Corrosion in Concrete Structures 864.1.2 Significance of Early Detection 874.1.3 Challenges in Corrosion Assessment 874.2 Forms of Corrosion in Concrete 884.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 884.2.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 894.2.3 Sulfate Attack 904.3 Visual Assessment Methods 904.3.1 Surface Damage and Deterioration 904.3.2 Signs of Corrosion in Concrete Structures 924.4 Electrochemical Assessment Methods 934.4.1 Half-Cell Potential Measurements 944.4.2 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 944.4.3 Electrochemical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) 954.5 Non-Destructive Testing (NDT) Techniques 984.5.1 Ultrasonic Testing (UT) 984.5.2 Radiography 984.5.3 Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) 994.6 Advanced Technologies in Corrosion Inspection 1004.6.1 Remote Sensing Techniques 1004.6.2 Digital Imaging and Analysis 1014.6.3 Integration of IoT and Data Analytics in Corrosion Monitoring 1014.7 Case Studies in Corrosion Assessment 1014.7.1 Case Study 1: Assessment in Marine Structures 1024.7.2 Case Study 2: Inspection of Bridges and Overpasses 1024.7.3 Case Study 3: Industrial Infrastructure 1034.8 Discussion on Assessment and Inspection Results 1044.8.1 Interpretation of Data 1044.8.2 Correlation Between Inspection Techniques and Structural Health 1054.9 Conclusion 1054.9.1 Recommendations for Practitioners 1064.9.2 Future Directions in Corrosion Assessment and Inspection 107Bibliography 1075 Impact of Concrete Corrosion on Environmental Sustainability 119Abhinay Thakur, Valentine C. Anadebe, Elyor Berdimurodov, Abdelkader Zarrouk, Omar Dagdag and Ashish Kumar5.1 Introduction 1205.2 Types of Concrete Corrosion 1235.2.1 Carbonation-Induced Corrosion 1235.2.2 Chloride-Induced Corrosion 1235.2.3 Other Corrosion Mechanisms 1245.3 Impact on Structural Integrity and Concrete Durability 1255.4 Environmental Consequences 1295.4.1 Resource Consumption and Waste Generation 1295.4.2 Release of Harmful Substances 1305.4.3 Impact on Soil and Water Quality 1315.5 Sustainability Challenges 1335.5.1 Lifecycle of Concrete Structures 1335.5.2 Resource Depletion and Energy Use 1345.6 Mitigation Strategies and Recent Advancements 1365.7 Challenges and Future Directions 1465.8 Conclusion 149References 1506 Role of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealants in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 163Humira Assad, Richika Ganjoo, Shveta Sharma, Praveen Kumar Sharma, Femiana Gapsari and Ashish Kumar6.1 Introduction 1646.2 Concrete Corrosion 1666.3 Overview of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealant Systems 1686.3.1 Types 1696.3.2 Criteria for Selecting Coatings and Sealants 1716.3.3 Installation and Performance of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealant Systems 1726.4 Role of Anti-Corrosion Coatings and Sealants in Concrete Corrosion 1776.5 Conclusion 180References 1817 Role of Cathodic Protection Systems in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 187Samir H. Shafek, Ahmed H. Elged, Mohamed A. Shenashen, Emad A. Badr and Hassan H. H. Hefni7.1 Introduction 1887.2 Cathodic Protection 1897.3 Cathodic Protection (CP) Monitoring Techniques in Concrete Structures 1907.3.1 Embedded Reference Electrodes 1907.3.2 Linear Polarization Resistance (LPR) 1917.3.3 Concrete Resistivity Monitoring 1917.3.4 Galvanostatic Pulse Measurements 1927.3.5 Wireless and Remote Monitoring Systems 1937.4 Anode Installation and Replacement 1947.4.1 Anode Installation 1947.4.1.1 Site Assessment and Design 1947.4.1.2 Preparation of the Concrete Surface 1957.4.1.3 Anode Placement 1957.4.1.4 Electrical Connections 1957.4.2 Anode Replacement 1967.4.2.1 Monitoring and Evaluation 1967.4.2.2 Removal of Old Anodes 1967.4.2.3 Installation of New Anodes 1967.4.2.4 Post-Installation Testing 1967.5 Anode Materials 1977.5.1 Sacrificial Anode Cathodic Protection (SACP) 1977.5.2 Impressed Current Cathodic Protection (ICCP) 1997.6 Factors Affecting Cathodic Protection Design in Concrete Corrosion 2037.6.1 Chloride Content 2037.6.2 Concrete Resistivity 2037.6.3 Steel Reinforcement Geometry and Spacing 2037.6.4 Concrete Cover Depth 2047.6.5 Environmental Exposure Conditions 2047.6.6 Compatibility of Materials 2047.7 New Trends of Cathodic Protection in Concrete Corrosion 2047.8 Challenges in Implementing Cathodic Protection in Concrete and Addressing Environmental and Sustainability Considerations 2087.9 Conclusion 208References 2098 Role of Corrosion Inhibitors in Preventing Concrete Corrosion 213Shweta Goyal, Vijay Luxami and Sonia Rani8.1 Introduction 2148.2 Definition of Corrosion Inhibitors 2158.3 Mechanism of Action of Inhibitor 2168.3.1 Passivation 2168.3.2 Adsorption 2168.3.3 Film-Forming 2178.3.4 Smart Release 2178.4 Classification of Corrosion Inhibitors 2178.5 Classification Based on Mechanism of Action 2178.5.1 Anodic Inhibitors 2198.5.2 Cathodic Inhibitors 2198.5.3 Hybrid Inhibitors 2208.6 Classification Based on Field Application 2208.6.1 Admixed Inhibitors 2208.6.2 Migratory Inhibitors 2218.6.3 Bi-Directional Electro-Migration (BIEM) 2218.7 Classification Based on Chemical Composition 2228.7.1 Inorganic Inhibitors 2228.7.1.1 Nitrate and Nitrite Based Inhibitor 2228.7.1.2 Phosphate Based Inhibitor 2268.7.1.3 Chromates and Molybdates 2268.7.2 Organic Inhibitors 2268.7.2.1 Performance of Organic Corrosion Inhibitors Depending on the Functional Groups 2288.7.2.2 Heterocyclic Compounds as Inhibitors 2378.8 Green Inhibitors 2388.9 Smart Inhibitors 2438.10 Testing and Evaluation Methods of Inhibitors 2458.10.1 Gravimetric Analysis 2458.10.2 Electrochemical Analysis 2468.10.3 Surface Analysis 2478.10.4 Standard Test Method 2478.11 Challenges and Future Perspectives 2478.12 Conclusion 248References 2499 Case Studies on Concrete Corrosion 257Ali Dashan, Hedieh Kazemi, Bahram Ramezanzadeh and Ghasem Bahlakeh9.1 Introduction 2589.2 Principles of Cathodic Protection: An Examination of Case Studies 2599.2.1 Principles of Cathodic Protection 2599.2.2 Case Studies of Cathodic Protection 2609.3 Corrosion Protection Based on Anti-Corrosion Coating: An Examination of Case Studies 2699.3.1 Corrosion Protection Through Anti-Corrosion Coatings 2699.3.2 Case Studies of Anti-Corrosion Coatings 2709.4 Utilizing Corrosion Inhibitors: An Examination of Case Studies 2769.4.1 The Utilization of Corrosion Inhibitors in Material Preservation 2769.4.2 Case Studies of Corrosion Inhibitors 2779.5 Comparative Analysis, Challenges, and Outlooks 285References 28710 Innovations in Concrete Corrosion Control 291Ruby Aslam, Zhitao Yan, Qihui Wang, Yi Sun, Afroz Aslam and Jeenat Aslam10.1 Introduction 29210.2 Innovative Materials for Corrosion Control 29310.2.1 Corrosion-Resistant Reinforcements 29310.2.2 Stainless Steel Innovations 29310.2.3 Fiber-Reinforced Polymers (FRP) 29310.2.4 Coated Rebars 29310.2.5 Self-Healing Concrete 29410.2.5.1 Autogenic Repair 29510.2.5.2 Hollow Fibers 29510.2.5.3 Microencapsulation 29610.2.5.4 Alkaline Activated Geopolymer Binder without Cement Content 29610.2.5.5 Biomineralization 29710.3 Nanomaterials in Concrete 29910.4 Advanced Coatings and Sealants 30010.5 Chemical Admixtures for Corrosion Protection 30110.5.1 Employment of Smart Corrosion Inhibitor 30110.5.2 Use of Supplementary Cementitious Materials (SCMs) 30310.6 Electrochemical Techniques 30410.6.1 Cathodic Protection Systems 30510.6.2 Electrochemical Realkalization and Chloride Extraction Methods 30610.6.2.1 Electrochemical Chloride Extraction (ece) 30710.6.2.2 Electrochemical Realkalization 30710.7 Role of AI and ML in Designing Corrosion-Resistant Concrete 30710.7.1 Corrosion Assessment and Prediction 30810.7.2 Material Discovery and Optimization 30810.7.3 Structural Design Enhancement 30810.8 Future Considerations 30810.9 Conclusion 310References 31111 Role of Nanotechnology in Concrete Corrosion Prevention 317Nabil Lahrache, Khalid Bouiti, Ichraq Bouhouche, Najoua Labjar, Hamid Nasrellah, Said Laasri, Ayoub Cherrat and Souad El Hajjaji11.1 Introduction 31811.2 Role of Nanotechnology in Corrosion Prevention 31911.2.1 Inhibition of Steel Corrosion by Nanohybrids 31911.2.2 Inhibition of Copper Corrosion by Nanohybrids 31911.2.3 Examples of Nanohybrids Used to Prevent Metal Corrosion 32111.3 Types of Nanomaterials Used in Concrete Corrosion Prevention 32311.3.1 Use of Nano-Admixtures 32311.3.2 Employment of Nanoparticle 32511.3.3 Nanocoatings 32811.4 Challenges and Limitations 33111.5 Future Perspectives 33111.6 Conclusion 331References 332Index 343