Contemporary Moral and Social Issues

Thomas D. Davis taught at the University of Michigan, Grinnell College, the University of Redlands, San Jose State University, and De Anza College. In addition to writing four editions of Philosophy: An Introduction Through Original Fiction, Discussion and Readings (fourth edition, 2004), he is the author of three published novels: Suffer Little Children (1991), Murdered Sleep (1994), and Consuming Fire (1996).

• Preface xv Acknowledgments xviiSource Acknowledgments xviiiPart I Introduction: Values 11 Fiction: 3“Too Much.” A young teacher and mother is thinking about her life as she sorts through the mailings from the opposing causes supported by her parents and in-laws 3Questions 82 Discussion: 9“Too Much” 9Values 10Personal Values 10Some distinctions 10Happiness as the ultimate personal value 12Happiness research 14Other personal values 15Moral Values 16Moral values/issues in the story 16What are moral values 17Biased moral reasoning 20Notes and selected sources 21Definitions 21Questions 223 Readings: 23Claudia Wallis writes about the “new science of happiness” 23Robert Nozick discusses his case of the “experience machine” 28Jonathan Glover discusses the dual values of happiness and flourishing 29Patrick Grim asks what makes a life good, distinguishing between “lives to envy” and “lives to admire” 32Louis P. Pojman, Richard Joyce and Shaun Nichols give their views on what morality is 35Jonathan Haidt discusses biases in our moral reasoning 40Part II Moral Theory 454 Fiction: 47“Long Live the King.” A fable about townspeople wondering how they should live when messages from the King become confusing, even contradictory 47Questions 505 Discussion: 51“Long Live the King” 51Religious ethics 52God and the good 52The God perspective 55Utilitarianism and rights 56Utilitarianism 56A first look at rights 58The idealized human perspective 59Aristotle and virtue ethics 59Kant and universalizability 61Rawls and the ideal agent 63The unidealized human perspective 65Evolutionary ethics 65Basic social contract theory 67Moral libertarianism 69Notes and selected sources 70Definitions 71Questions 73Appendix: moral relativism 74What’s supposed to be relative? 74Cultural relativism 77Individual relativism/moral subjectivism 78Notes and selected sources 80Definitions 81Questions 816 Readings: 82Jeremy Bentham presents a classic statement of the principle of utility 82John Stuart Mill argues that there are higher and lower forms of happiness 84Peter Singer discusses what ethics is and offers a justification for a utilitarian ethic 86Immanuel Kant argues that ethics is based on “the categorical imperative” 89John Rawls argues that from an original position of equality we would reject utilitarianism in favor of his two principles of justice 93Robert Nozick discusses the moral principles behind his political libertarianism 96Jeremy Waldron discusses the concept of human rights and gives an argument for “welfare rights” 100Aristotle analyzes happiness as a life lived according to virtue 103Jonathan Haidt discusses virtue ethics in the context of positive psychology 106Jean Grimshaw discusses the idea of a female ethic, reviewing some contemporary writers on the subject 109Simon Blackburn warns against confusions we should avoid if we read popular literature on ethics and evolution 112George Lakoff describes two forms of Christianity that parallel two different models of the family 113James Rachels discusses “the challenge of cultural relativism” 114Part III Morality and Politics 1197 Fiction: 121“The Divided States of America.” In the middle of the tumultuous twenty-first century, the United States has split into four separate districts based on liberalism, conservativism, libertarianism and socialism 121Questions 1298 Discussion: 130“The Divided States of America” 130Preliminary issues 131Morality and free markets 131Democracy 132Religion in the public square 133Four political philosophies 134Libertarianism 136Conservatism 139Liberalism 141Socialism 143Notes and selected sources 145Definitions 146Questions 1489 Readings: 149Jerry Z. Muller defines capitalism and talks about some of the tensions between capitalism and democracy 149Fareed Zakaria analyzes the two strands of “liberal democracy”—democracy and constitutional liberalism 152Noah Feldman discusses the origins of the Free Exercise and Establishment Clauses of the First Amendment 154John Hospers discusses libertarianism 159Patrick N. Allitt discusses conservativism 163Paul Starr discusses liberalism 166Peter Self discusses socialism 169Part IV World Poverty 17310 Fiction: 175“The River.” A man, living alone in a jungle outpost, is confronted by an increasing number of refugees appearing on the opposite bank of a turbulent river, refugees who will starve unless he ferries them across 175Questions 18111 Discussion: 182“The River” 182Facts and factual issues 183World poverty: basic facts 183Financial aid and economic growth 185Food aid and the “Green Revolution” 186Trying to find out what works 187What, if anything, can individuals do to help? 189Peter Singer: we owe much to the world’s poor 190Singer’s Shallow Pond argument 190Sympathetic critiques and alternate proposals 193Libertarians: we owe nothing to the world’s poor 196Arguments of libertarians and social contract theorists 196Pogge: obligations even on libertarian principles 197Religion and aiding the poor 198Notes and selected sources 201Definitions 202Questions 20312 Readings: 204Nicholas D. Kristof discusses the failures and successes of foreign aid 204Abhijit V. Banerjee and Esther Duflo discuss the debate on world poverty and the need for controlled trials to see what interventions work 206Peter Singer argues that to live a morally decent life, the well-off would have to give most of what they have to the world’s poor 211Kwame Anthony Appiah argues that we do not owe so much to strangers as Singer claims 214Jan Narveson, a Libertarian, argues that feeding the hungry is not an obligation 216Thomas Pogge argues that even on libertarian principles the West has some responsibility for alleviating world poverty 219Jim Wallis talks about biblical injunctions to help the poor 223Part V Abortion 22713 Fiction: 229“The Blessing of the Blastocysts.” A future disaster leads to the gestation of all human fetuses outside the womb 229Questions 23514 Discussion: 236“The Blessing of the Blastocysts” 236Facts and factual issues 237Abortion: definition and statistics 237Abortion methods 237Development of the embryo/fetus 238Legal status of abortion 239Religious positions 240Public opinion 241The complexity of the abortion issue 241A range of positions 241The moral versus the legal 242Practical means to reducing abortion 244Two central moral issues 244The moral status of the fetus 245Fetal development and moral status 245Pro-life arguments re fetal status 248Pro-choice arguments re fetal status 249Moderate-position arguments re fetal status 249Conflicting claims of the mother versus the fetus 251Summary 253Notes and selected sources 254Definitions 255Questions 25615 Readings: 257Roger A. Paynter discusses different interpretations of what the Bible has to say about abortion 257John T. Noonan, Jr. argues that abortion is morally wrong 259Mary Ann Warren argues that fetuses don’t qualify as persons with a right to life 262Gregg Easterbrook argues that third-trimester abortions—but those only—should be tightly restricted 266Judith Jarvis Thomson argues that even if it were granted that the fetus is a person, many abortions can still be justified in terms of the rights of the mother 267Joel Feinberg and Barbara Baum Levenbook consider the claim that even if the fetus is a person, the interests of the mother justify abortion in many cases 272Jane English thinks a moderate position on abortion can be justified, whether or not the fetus is conceived as a person 275Part VI Animals 27916 Fiction: 281“The Trainers.” An alien race has saved and nurtured a remnant of humanity that survived a nuclear holocaust. The humans are now thriving on a South Sea island. But, as the alien narrator says, “salvation always comes at a price” 281Questions 28517 Discussion: 286“The Trainers” 286Facts and factual issues 288Research animals 288Factory farming 290Three moral views regarding our use of animals 292Animal minds 293Pro-Status Quo views 295Animal Welfare views 297Abolitionist views 298The Speciesist Critique 298Singer and utilitarianism 301Regan and animal rights 302Notes and selected sources 303Definitions 304Questions 30518 Readings: 306David DeGrazia presents the case for animals feeling pain 306Robert Nozick asks what moral constraints there are, if any, on the behavior of humans toward animals 311Peter Singer argues that all creatures who are capable of suffering are entitled to equal concern 313Tom Regan argues the case for animal rights 318Carl Cohen defends the use of animals in medical research 323Matthew Scully pleads for animal welfare, speaking particularly to fellow conservatives and Christians 327Part VII The Environment 32919 Fiction: 331“Museum for a Dying Planet.” The inhabitants of a planet dying from ecological disasters built a self-sustaining habitat/museum so that future visitors would be able to appreciate the beauty that once was their home 331Questions 33520 Discussion: 336“Museum for a Dying Planet” 336Facts and factual issues 337Environmental problems 337A history of environmental issues in the US 337Global warming 339Environmental decision-making 340The assessment of risk 340Present versus future people 341Environmental justice 341Cost–benefit analysis 342What has inherent moral worth? 343Humans? Animals? The natural world? 343Humans (only) 344Sentient creatures (only) 344Living things (only) 345Natural things (only) 347Natural systems 347Notes and selected sources 348Definitions 350Questions 35121 Readings: 352Edmund O. Wilson describes environmental problems and presents two opposing views as to how they should be approached 352Gabrielle Walker and Sir David King present a mitigationist view re global warming 354Bjorn Lomborg presents an adaptationist case re global warming 356Timothy Taylor discusses the problem of how to discount the future, especially in the case of low-probability, high-risk events 358William Baxter argues for an anthropocentric view of the environment 361Richard Routley argues against an anthropocentric view of the environment 363Paul Taylor argues that all living things can be said to have a “good of their own” and are worthy of respect and moral consideration 367J. Baird Callicott discusses the land ethic of Aldo Leopold 371Bill Devall and George Sessions discuss “deep ecology” 374Part VIII Genetics 37722 Fiction: 379“People of the Underground.” After a failed rebellion against the “Clenes” (a genetically enhanced part of the human race), the “People” survive in the Caves, claiming to preserve “true humanity” 379Questions 38623 Discussion: 387“People of the Underground” 387Facts and factual issues 388In vitro fertilization 388Pre-implantation genetic diagnosis (PGD) 388Human genetic engineering (HGE) 389The case against human genetic engineering 3901. HGE would be too dangerous 3902. HGE/PGD would be “playing God” 3913. HGE/PGD wouldn’t be limited to curing disease 3914. HGE would lead to a “genetic arms race” 3925. HGE could undermine religion and ethics 3926. HGE could lead to totalitarianism 3937. HGE could lead to Nazi-like eugenics 3938. HGE could undermine human equality 3939. HGE could undermine human freedom 394The case for human genetic engineering 394Reply to Objection 1 395Reply to Objection 2 395Reply to Objection 3 395Reply to Objection 4 396Reply to Objection 5 396Reply to Objection 6 396Reply to Objection 7 397Reply to Objection 8 397Reply to Objection 9 398Concluding remarks 398Notes and selected sources 399Definitions 400Questions 40124 Readings: 402Ronald M. Green discusses some of the fears of genetic enhancement displayed in literature and argues that these fears may simply reflect “status quo bias” 402Gregory Stock discusses the possibility of “redesigning humans” and argues it will likely happen 405Jonathan Glover discusses a “genetic supermarket,” positive versus negative genetic engineering and whether human nature should be sacrosanct 408Francis Fukuyama warns against genetics leading us into a “post-human” future. He thinks genetic engineering should be limited to curing disease and outlines the regulatory changes the US would need to make to accomplish this 412Bill McKibben argues that human genetic engineering will end up limiting human freedom and that it’s our responsibility—not that of geneticists, doctors and bioethicists—to decide its future course 416The President’s Council on bioethics gives its analysis of some of the ethical issues regarding future use of PGD 420