F. Ellen Netting, PHD, is the Samuel S. Wurtzel Endowed Chair and Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs. Mary Katherine O'Connor, PHD, is a Professor in the School of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD and MSW programs.David P. Fauri, PHD, is a Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where he teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xxiiiChapter 1 Differences Between Lines and Circles 1Lines and Circles as Planning Metaphors 5A Brief History of Lines and Circles 7Planning Theory: Both Lines and Circles 16Examples of Planning Approaches 20The ‘‘Surety’’ of the Line and the ‘‘Tentativeness’’ of the Circle 24A Conceptual Framework 25Summary 27Discussion Questions 28Chapter 2 Programs: Containers for Idea Implementation 31Programs and Projects; Services and Interventions 32Programs and Projects 36Services and Interventions 38Programs in Organizational Context 39Program Planning 43Mandates and Initiatives 44Planning Different Types of Programs 46Summary 48Discussion Questions 49Case Exercise: Chronic Pain 51Chapter 3 Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 59Case: The Mayor and the Street Educators 61Introduction 69History of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 71Dimensions of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 75The Logic Model 75Assessing Needs 78Defining and Analyzing Problems 80Selecting Intervention Strategies 82Writing Goals and Objectives 87Program Design and Decision-Making 91Accountability in a Prescriptive Approach 96Accountability Challenges 97Information Systems 100Budgeting 103Rational Planning 104Mind-sets 104Skills 106Strengths and Challenges of Rational Planning 110Summary 112Discussion Questions 114Chapter 4 Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 117Case: The Invisible People and the Area Agency on Aging 119Introduction 126History of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 129Dimensions of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 133The Logic of Emergence 133Engagement 138Discovery 144Sense-making 146Unfolding 148Accountability in an Emergent Approach 155Accountability Challenges 156Accountability Options 157Interpretive Planning 162Mind-sets 163Skills 164Strengths and Challenges of Interpretive Planning 165Summary 166Discussion Questions 167Chapter 5 Knowing When to Use Which Planning Approach 169Case: AIDS Orphans and the Pig Intervention 173Similarities in Planning Approach Challenges 176Gaining Entry 177Becoming Oriented 179Engaging in Critical Thinking 181Making Ethical Decisions 187Comparing Program Planning Approaches 192Comparing Dimensions 192Examining Accountability 198Thinking about Mind-sets and Skills 201Decision Issues for Approach Selection 205Summary 208Discussion Questions 208Appendix: Comparing Planning Approaches 210Chapter 6 Program Planning in Diverse Cultural Contexts 213Culture and Context 216Defining Culture 216Elements in Culture Development 217Cultural Competence 220Skills of the Culturally Competent 222Challenges to Culturally Competent Human Service Programming 225Understanding Empiricism 225Recognizing Realism and Interpretivism 227Responding to Accountability Demands 229Cultural Competence and Program Planning 231Planning with Sensitivity to Difference 233Planning with Sensitivity to Inclusion 238Planning with Sensitivity to Context 240Planning Across Multiple Organizational Settings 244Issues When Practicing Internationally 245Summary 247Conclusion 249Exercises 250Glossary 253References 271Index 281

"I found this book helpful in giving structure and organization to my thinking about program planning, prioritizing my goals in planning, and decreasing wasted planning time. Comparative Approaches to Program Planning recognizes the delicate balance of planning programs that are accessible and acceptable to the participant while maintaining a focus on accountability." (Psychiatric Services, November 2008)

F. Ellen Netting, PHD, is the Samuel S. Wurtzel Endowed Chair and Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs. Mary Katherine O'Connor, PHD, is a Professor in the School of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD and MSW programs.David P. Fauri, PHD, is a Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where he teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xxiiiChapter 1 Differences Between Lines and Circles 1Lines and Circles as Planning Metaphors 5A Brief History of Lines and Circles 7Planning Theory: Both Lines and Circles 16Examples of Planning Approaches 20The ‘‘Surety’’ of the Line and the ‘‘Tentativeness’’ of the Circle 24A Conceptual Framework 25Summary 27Discussion Questions 28Chapter 2 Programs: Containers for Idea Implementation 31Programs and Projects; Services and Interventions 32Programs and Projects 36Services and Interventions 38Programs in Organizational Context 39Program Planning 43Mandates and Initiatives 44Planning Different Types of Programs 46Summary 48Discussion Questions 49Case Exercise: Chronic Pain 51Chapter 3 Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 59Case: The Mayor and the Street Educators 61Introduction 69History of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 71Dimensions of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 75The Logic Model 75Assessing Needs 78Defining and Analyzing Problems 80Selecting Intervention Strategies 82Writing Goals and Objectives 87Program Design and Decision-Making 91Accountability in a Prescriptive Approach 96Accountability Challenges 97Information Systems 100Budgeting 103Rational Planning 104Mind-sets 104Skills 106Strengths and Challenges of Rational Planning 110Summary 112Discussion Questions 114Chapter 4 Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 117Case: The Invisible People and the Area Agency on Aging 119Introduction 126History of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 129Dimensions of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 133The Logic of Emergence 133Engagement 138Discovery 144Sense-making 146Unfolding 148Accountability in an Emergent Approach 155Accountability Challenges 156Accountability Options 157Interpretive Planning 162Mind-sets 163Skills 164Strengths and Challenges of Interpretive Planning 165Summary 166Discussion Questions 167Chapter 5 Knowing When to Use Which Planning Approach 169Case: AIDS Orphans and the Pig Intervention 173Similarities in Planning Approach Challenges 176Gaining Entry 177Becoming Oriented 179Engaging in Critical Thinking 181Making Ethical Decisions 187Comparing Program Planning Approaches 192Comparing Dimensions 192Examining Accountability 198Thinking about Mind-sets and Skills 201Decision Issues for Approach Selection 205Summary 208Discussion Questions 208Appendix: Comparing Planning Approaches 210Chapter 6 Program Planning in Diverse Cultural Contexts 213Culture and Context 216Defining Culture 216Elements in Culture Development 217Cultural Competence 220Skills of the Culturally Competent 222Challenges to Culturally Competent Human Service Programming 225Understanding Empiricism 225Recognizing Realism and Interpretivism 227Responding to Accountability Demands 229Cultural Competence and Program Planning 231Planning with Sensitivity to Difference 233Planning with Sensitivity to Inclusion 238Planning with Sensitivity to Context 240Planning Across Multiple Organizational Settings 244Issues When Practicing Internationally 245Summary 247Conclusion 249Exercises 250Glossary 253References 271Index 281

"I found this book helpful in giving structure and organization to my thinking about program planning, prioritizing my goals in planning, and decreasing wasted planning time. Comparative Approaches to Program Planning recognizes the delicate balance of planning programs that are accessible and acceptable to the participant while maintaining a focus on accountability." (Psychiatric Services, November 2008)

F. Ellen Netting, PHD, is the Samuel S. Wurtzel Endowed Chair and Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs. Mary Katherine O'Connor, PHD, is a Professor in the School of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where she teaches in the PhD and MSW programs.David P. Fauri, PHD, is a Professor of Social Work at Virginia Commonwealth University where he teaches in the PhD, MSW, and BSW programs.

• Preface xiiiAcknowledgments xxiiiChapter 1 Differences Between Lines and Circles 1Lines and Circles as Planning Metaphors 5A Brief History of Lines and Circles 7Planning Theory: Both Lines and Circles 16Examples of Planning Approaches 20The ‘‘Surety’’ of the Line and the ‘‘Tentativeness’’ of the Circle 24A Conceptual Framework 25Summary 27Discussion Questions 28Chapter 2 Programs: Containers for Idea Implementation 31Programs and Projects; Services and Interventions 32Programs and Projects 36Services and Interventions 38Programs in Organizational Context 39Program Planning 43Mandates and Initiatives 44Planning Different Types of Programs 46Summary 48Discussion Questions 49Case Exercise: Chronic Pain 51Chapter 3 Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 59Case: The Mayor and the Street Educators 61Introduction 69History of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 71Dimensions of Rational Planning and Prescriptive Approaches 75The Logic Model 75Assessing Needs 78Defining and Analyzing Problems 80Selecting Intervention Strategies 82Writing Goals and Objectives 87Program Design and Decision-Making 91Accountability in a Prescriptive Approach 96Accountability Challenges 97Information Systems 100Budgeting 103Rational Planning 104Mind-sets 104Skills 106Strengths and Challenges of Rational Planning 110Summary 112Discussion Questions 114Chapter 4 Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 117Case: The Invisible People and the Area Agency on Aging 119Introduction 126History of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 129Dimensions of Interpretive Planning and Emergent Approaches 133The Logic of Emergence 133Engagement 138Discovery 144Sense-making 146Unfolding 148Accountability in an Emergent Approach 155Accountability Challenges 156Accountability Options 157Interpretive Planning 162Mind-sets 163Skills 164Strengths and Challenges of Interpretive Planning 165Summary 166Discussion Questions 167Chapter 5 Knowing When to Use Which Planning Approach 169Case: AIDS Orphans and the Pig Intervention 173Similarities in Planning Approach Challenges 176Gaining Entry 177Becoming Oriented 179Engaging in Critical Thinking 181Making Ethical Decisions 187Comparing Program Planning Approaches 192Comparing Dimensions 192Examining Accountability 198Thinking about Mind-sets and Skills 201Decision Issues for Approach Selection 205Summary 208Discussion Questions 208Appendix: Comparing Planning Approaches 210Chapter 6 Program Planning in Diverse Cultural Contexts 213Culture and Context 216Defining Culture 216Elements in Culture Development 217Cultural Competence 220Skills of the Culturally Competent 222Challenges to Culturally Competent Human Service Programming 225Understanding Empiricism 225Recognizing Realism and Interpretivism 227Responding to Accountability Demands 229Cultural Competence and Program Planning 231Planning with Sensitivity to Difference 233Planning with Sensitivity to Inclusion 238Planning with Sensitivity to Context 240Planning Across Multiple Organizational Settings 244Issues When Practicing Internationally 245Summary 247Conclusion 249Exercises 250Glossary 253References 271Index 281

"I found this book helpful in giving structure and organization to my thinking about program planning, prioritizing my goals in planning, and decreasing wasted planning time. Comparative Approaches to Program Planning recognizes the delicate balance of planning programs that are accessible and acceptable to the participant while maintaining a focus on accountability." (Psychiatric Services, November 2008)