Communicating in Risk, Crisis, and High Stress Situations: Evidence-Based Strategies and Practice

VINCENT T. COVELLO, PhD, is a leading expert in risk, crisis, and high stress communications. He is currently Director of the Center for Risk Communication in New York City, an organization that applies evidence-based knowledge to a wide range of high concern, high stakes situations. He has served as a senior adviser to the World Health Organization, the US Department of Health and Human Services, the US Environmental Protection Agency, the US Department of Agriculture, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and other national and international organizations. Over the past 40 years, Dr. Covello has published more than 150 scientific articles on risk, crisis, and high stress communications.

• A Note from the Series Editor xiiiAcknowledgments xvAuthor Biography xvii1 The Critical Role of Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 11.1 Case Diary: A Collision of Facts and Perceptions 21.2 What Will Readers Find in This Book? 31.3 Why You Will Use This Book 41.4 The Need for This Book – Now 51.4.1 New Literature, New Research 51.4.2 Changes in the Communications Landscape 61.4.3 Changes in Journalism and the Perception of Facts 71.4.4 Changes in Laws, Regulations, and Societal Expectations 71.4.5 Changes in Concerns about Health, Safety, and the Environment 71.4.6 Changes in Levels of Trust 71.4.7 Changes in the Global Political Environment 81.4.8 The COVID- 19 Pandemic and the Changed Communication Landscape 82 Core Concepts 112.1 Case Diary: Recognizing Change as a High Concern Issue 112.2 Defining the Concept and Term Risk 132.3 Defining the Concept and Term Risk Communication 142.4 Risk Communication and Its Relationship to Risk Analysis 172.5 Defining the Concepts and Terms High Concern and High Concern Communication 192.6 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis 222.7 Defining the Concept and Term Crisis Communication 242.8 Chapter Resources 25Endnotes 313 An Overview of Risk Communication 333.1 Case Diary: Complex Issues Destroy Homes 333.2 Challenges and Difficulties Faced in Communicating Risk Information 353.2.1 Characteristics and Limitations of Scientific and Technical Data about Risks 353.2.2 Characteristics and Limitations of Spokespersons in Communicating Information about Risks 353.2.2.1 Case Study: “Go Hard, Go Early”: Risk Communication Lessons from New Zealand’s Response to COVID-19 373.2.3 Characteristics and Limitations of Risk Management Regulations and Standards 413.2.3.1 Debates and Disagreements 413.2.3.2 Limited Resources for Risk Assessment and Management 413.2.3.3 Underestimating the Difficulty of and Need for Risk Communication 423.2.3.4 Lack of Coordination and Collaboration 423.2.4 Characteristics and Limitations of Traditional Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks 423.2.5 Characteristics and Limitations of Social Media Channels in Communicating Information about Risks 433.2.6 Characteristics and Limitations of People in their Ability to Evaluate and Interpret Risk Information 443.3 Changes in How the Brain Processes Information Under Conditions of High Stress 483.4 Risk Communication Theory 493.4.1 Trust Determination Theory 493.4.2 Negative Dominance Theory 503.4.3 Mental Noise Theory 503.4.4 Risk Perception Theory 503.5 Risk Communication Principles and Guidelines 553.5.1 Principle 1. Accept and Involve All Interested and Affected Persons as Legitimate Partners 553.5.2 Principle 2. Plan Carefully and Evaluate Performance 553.5.3 Principle 3. Listen to Your Audience 573.5.4 Principle 4. Be Honest, Frank, and Open 573.5.5 Principle 5. Coordinate and Collaborate with Other Credible Sources 583.5.6 Principle 6. Meet the Needs of Traditional and Social Media 583.5.7 Principle 7. Speak Clearly and with Compassion 583.6 Key Takeaway Concepts and Conclusions from this Overview Chapter 593.7 Chapter Resources 59Endnotes 664 Development of Risk Communication Theory and Practice 694.1 Case Diary: Origin Story 694.2 Introduction 704.2.1 Historical Phase 1: Presenting Risk Numbers 714.2.2 Historical Phase 2: Listening and Planning 714.2.3 Historical Phase 3: Stakeholder Engagement 724.2.4 Covello and Sandman’s Four Stages of Risk Communication 724.2.4.1 Stage 1: Ignore the Public 734.2.4.2 Stage 2: Explaining Risk Data Better 734.2.4.3 Stage 3: Stakeholder Engagement 774.2.4.4 Stage 4: Empowerment 784.3 Summary 794.4 Chapter Resources 79Endnotes 835 Stakeholder Engagement and Empowerment 875.1 Case Diary: A Town Hall Public Meeting Goes Very Wrong 875.2 Introduction 895.3 Levels of Stakeholder Engagement 915.3.1 Types of Stakeholder Engagement 935.4 Benefits of Stakeholder Engagement 955.5 Limitations and Challenges of Stakeholder Engagement 965.6 Techniques and Approaches for Effective Stakeholder Engagement 975.7 Meetings with Stakeholders 1005.7.1 Town Hall Meetings 1015.7.2 Open House Meetings/Information Workshops 1025.7.3 Tips for Meetings with Stakeholders 1025.8 Chapter Resources 104Endnotes 1076 Communicating in a Crisis 1116.1 Case Diary: The Challenge of Partnership in a Crisis 1126.2 The Three Phases of a Crisis 1136.3 Communication in the Precrisis Preparedness Phase 1156.3.1 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Potential Crises 1176.3.2 Case Study: The 2010 BP Deepwater Horizon Oil Spill 1186.3.3 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify Goals and Objectives 1206.3.4 Precrisis Communication Activity: Develop a Crisis Communication Plan 1216.3.5 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identify, Train, and Test Crisis Communication Spokespersons 1246.3.6 Precrisis Communication Activity: Engaging Stakeholders 1246.3.7 Precrisis Communication Activity: Identifying Stakeholders’ Questions and Concerns 1266.3.8 Drafting Messages for Anticipated Stakeholder Questions and Concerns 1266.3.9 Precrisis Communication Activity: Conducting Exercises to Test the Crisis Communication Plan 1286.3.10 Precrisis Communication Activity: Incident Command System (ICS) and the Joint Information Center (JIC) 1296.4 Communications in the Crisis Response Phase 1306.4.1 Case Study: Lac-Mégantic Rail Tragedy 1346.4.2 Disaster and Emergency Warnings 1366.4.2.1 Designing Effective Warnings 1376.4.2.2 Steps in the Disaster and Emergency Warning Process 1376.5 Communicating Effectively about Blame, Accountability, and Responsibility 1396.6 Communicating an Apology 1406.6.1 Case Study: Maple Leaf Foods and the Listeria Food Contamination Crisis 1416.6.2 Case Study: Southwest Airlines Apology 1446.7 Communications in the Postcrisis Recovery Phase 1456.7.1 Case Study and Case Diary: New York City’s Communication Trials by Fire, from West Nile to 9/11 1466.7.2 Case Study: Johnson & Johnson and the Tylenol Tampering Case 1476.7.3 Case Study: Flint, Michigan and Contaminated Drinking Water 1496.8 Chapter Resources 151Endnotes 1597 Foundational Principles: Perceptions, Biases, and Information Filters 1657.1 Case Diary: “A” Is for “Apples” 1657.2 Message Perception and Reception in High Concern Situations 1687.3 Message Filter Theory: A Set of Principles Drawn from the Behavioral and Neuroscience Literature 1697.4 Case Study: COVID- 19 and Risk Perception Factors 1717.4.1 Social Amplification Filters 1737.4.2 Mental Shortcut Filters 1747.4.3 Knowledge and Belief Filters 1767.4.4 Personality Filters 1777.4.5 Negative Dominance/Loss Aversion Filters 1777.5 Message Filters and the Brain 1797.6 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Models of Human Behavior 1797.7 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Persuasion 1807.8 Message Filters, Perceptions, and Ethics 1817.9 Message Filters and the Issue of Acceptable Risk 1827.9.1 Factors in Determining Acceptable Risk 1837.9.2 Strategies for Addressing Acceptable Risk 1847.10 The Message is in the Mind of the Receiver 1867.11 Chapter Resources 186Endnotes 1928 Foundational Principles: Trust, Culture, and Worldviews 1978.1 Case Diary: A Disease Outbreak in Africa 1988.2 Trust Determination 2008.3 Characteristics and Attributes of Trust 2018.3.1 Trust and First Impressions 2038.3.2 Loss of Trust 2048.3.3 Gaining Trust 2068.3.3.1 Gaining Trust through Stakeholder Engagement 2068.3.3.2 Gaining Trust through Trust Transference 2068.3.3.3 Gaining Trust through Actions and Behavior 2078.4 Case Study: Trust and the Chernobyl Nuclear Power Plant Accident 2078.5 Case Diary: The Fukushima Japan Nuclear Power Plant Accident 2088.6 Gaining Trust in High- Stakes Negotiations 2108.7 Case Diary: Gaining Trust and the SARS Outbreak in Hong Kong 2118.8 Trust and Culture 2128.9 Cultural Competency 2128.9.1 Different Communication Styles 2138.9.2 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conflict 2148.9.3 Different Nonverbal Communication 2148.9.4 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Decision Making 2148.9.5 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Information Disclosure 2158.9.6 Different Attitudes and Approaches to Knowing 2158.9.7 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward Conversation and Discourse 2158.9.8 Different Attitudes and Approaches toward the Use of Humor 2158.10 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Cultural Theory 2158.11 Risk Perceptions, Trust, and Worldviews 2178.12 Case Diary: Fame, Family, and Fear in Public Health Communications 2188.13 Chapter Resources 221Endnotes 2279 Best Practices for Message Development in High Concern Situations 2319.1 Case Diary: Mapping Through a Maze of COVID Confusion 2319.2 Introduction 2329.3 Crafting Messages in the Context of Stress and High Concern Decision- Making 2339.3.1 Trust Determination and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 2339.3.1.1 The CCO Best Practice 2339.3.2 Impaired Comprehension and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 2349.3.3 Negative Dominance and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 2349.3.4 Emotional Impact and Messaging in High-Stress Situations 2359.3.4.1 Case Study: Hoarding Toilet Paper at the Outset of the 2020 COVID-19 Pandemic 2369.4 Message Mapping 2389.4.1 Benefits of Message Maps 2389.4.2 Message Maps and the Brain 2419.4.3 The Development of Message Mapping 2439.4.4 Case Study: Message Maps and Asbestos 2449.4.5 Steps in Developing a Message Map 2459.4.5.1 Step 1: Identify, Profile, and Prioritize Key Stakeholders 2459.4.5.2 Step 2: Develop Lists of Stakeholder Questions and Concerns 2489.4.5.3 Case Study: Stakeholder Questions, Terrorism, and Disasters 2499.4.5.4 Step 3: Develop Key Messages 2499.4.5.5 Step 4: Develop Supporting Information 2529.4.5.6 Step 5: Testing the Message Map 2539.4.5.7 Step 6: Repurpose Maps through Appropriate Information Channels 2549.5 Summary 2549.6 Chapter Resources 255Endnotes 263Appendices 265Appendix 9.1 265Appendix 9.2 267Appendix 9.3 277Appendix 9.4 28010 Communicating Numbers, Statistics, and Technical Information about a Risk or Threat 28510.1 Case Diary: A Civil Action 28510.2 Introduction 28810.3 Case Study: Numbers, Statistics, and COVID-19 28910.4 Brain Processes That Filter How Technical Information about Risk or Threat Is Received and Understood 29210.4.1 Risk and Threat Perception Filters 29310.4.2 Thought Processing Filters 29410.4.3 Mental Model Filters 29410.4.4 Emotional Filters 29510.4.5 Motivational Filters 29510.5 Challenges in Explaining Technical Information About a Risk or Threat 29610.6 Framing 29710.7 Technical Jargon 29810.8 Information Clarity 29910.9 Units of Measurement 30010.10 Case Study: Risk Numbers, Risk Statistics, and the Challenger Accident 30310.11 Comparisons 30410.12 Lessons Learned 30810.13 Chapter Resources 308Endnotes 31511 Evaluating Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communications 32111.1 Case Diary: Finding the Road to Rio 32111.1.1 The Mosquito Front 32211.1.2 The Citizen Front 32211.1.3 The Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front 32311.1.4 Communication Strategy: The Citizen Front 32311.1.5 Communication Strategy: Olympic Athlete and Visitor Front 32311.2 Introduction 32411.3 Benefits of Evaluation 32611.4 Evaluation Practices for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 32711.5 Case Studies of Evaluation Comparison to Best Practice: Hurricane Katrina, COVID-19and Vaccination Hesitancy, and Outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China 32911.5.1 Hurricane Katrina 32911.5.2 COVID-19 and Vaccination Hesitancy 33011.5.3 Outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China 33011.6 Barriers and Challenges to Evaluation 33211.6.1 Differences in Values 33211.6.2 Differences in Goals 33211.6.3 Competition for Resources 33211.6.4 Ability to Learn from Results 33311.7 Evaluation Measures 33811.7.1 Process/Implementation Evaluation Measures 33811.7.2 Outcome/Impact Evaluation Measures 33911.7.3 Formative Evaluation Measures 34011.8 An Integrated Approach to Evaluation 34111.9 Resource: Case Study of Focus Group Testing of Mosquito-Control Messages, Florida, 2018–2019 34211.10 Evaluation Tools 34711.11 Chapter Resources 348Endnotes 35312 Communicating with Mainstream News Media 35712.1 Case Diary: A High Stakes Chess Game with a News Media Outlet 35712.2 Introduction 35912.3 Characteristics of the Mainstream News Media 36112.3.1 Content 36112.3.2 Clarity 36212.3.3 Avoiding Prejudice 36212.3.4 Topicality 36212.3.5 Diversity 36312.3.6 Subject Matter Expertise 36312.3.7 Resources 36312.3.8 Career Advancement 36412.3.9 Watchdogs 36412.3.10 Amplifiers 36412.3.11 Skepticism 36412.3.12 Source Dependency 36512.3.13 Professionalism and Independence 36512.3.14 Covering Uncertainty 36612.3.15 Legal Constraints 36612.3.16 Special Populations 36612.3.17 Competition 36612.3.18 Confidentiality and Protection of Sources 36712.3.19 Deadlines 36712.3.20 Trust 36712.3.21 Storytelling 36812.3.22 Balance and Controversy 36812.4 Guidelines and Best Practices for Interacting with Mainstream News Media 36812.5 The Media Interview 37012.6 Lessons and Trends 37512.7 Case Diary: A Ten-Round Exercise 37712.8 Chapter Resources 378Endnotes 38113 Social Media and the Changing Landscape for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 38513.1 Case Diary: Myth-Busting: Mission Impossible? 38513.2 Introduction 38713.3 Benefits of Social Media Outlets for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 38913.3.1 Speed 38913.3.2 Access 39013.3.3 Reach 39013.3.4 Amplification 39013.3.5 Transparency 39013.3.6 Understanding 39013.3.7 Changes in Behaviors 39113.3.8 Relationship Building 39113.3.9 Timeliness 39113.3.10 Hyperlocal Specificity 39113.3.11 Listening and Feedback 39213.3.12 Taking Advantage of the Benefits of Social Media 39213.4 Challenges of Social Media for Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Communication 39313.4.1 Rising Expectations 39313.4.2 Repostings/Redistribution 39313.4.3 Permanent Storage 39413.4.4 Hacking/Security 39413.4.5 Rise and Fall of Social Media Platforms 39413.4.6 Resources 39413.4.7 Privacy and Confidentiality 39413.4.8 Cognitive Overload 39513.4.9 Players on the Field 39513.4.10 Misinformation, Disinformation, and Rumors 39513.5 Case Study: Social Media and the 2007 and 2011 Shooter Incidents at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech) 39713.6 Case Study: Social Media and the 2013 Southern Alberta/Calgary Flood 39813.7 Best Practices for Using Social Media in Risk, High Concern, and Crisis Situations 40013.7.1 Create a Social Media Plan 40013.7.2 Staff Appropriately for Social Media Communication 40013.7.3 Ensure Continuous Updating 40113.7.4 Identify Your Partners 40113.7.5 Assess and Reassess Your Selection of Platforms 40113.7.6 Create and Maintain as Many Social Media Accounts as You and Your Stakeholders Need 40113.7.7 Be Prepared for the Special Social Media Requirements and Pressures in a Crisis 40113.7.8 Provide Guidance for Employees and Engage Them in the Process 40213.7.9 Don’t Skip Evaluation 40313.8 Case Diary: Social Media and the Negative Power of“Junk”Information about Risks and Threats 40313.9 Lessons Learned and Trends 40413.10 Chapter Resources 404Endnotes 408Index 411