Cold War

Michael Kerrigan was educated at St. Edward’s College and University College, Oxford, England. He is the author of Cold War Plans That Never Happened, The History of Russia in Colour, Chernobyl, World War II Plans That Never Happened, and American Presidents: A Dark History. He is a columnist, book reviewer, and feature writer for publications including the Scotsman and the Times Literary Supplement. He lives in Edinburgh.

• Contents: Introduction For the decades between 1946 and 1991, the Soviet Union and its allies in the Eastern Europe – the so-called ‘Soviet bloc’, united under the banner of the Warsaw Pact – and the United States of America and its allies in Western Europe, united under the banner of the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) – were involved in a massive geo- political and military stand-off, known as the Cold War.1940s • Best of Enemies. Yalta Conference, Feb. 1945. Decided post-war reorganization of Europe. • Thinking the Unthinkable. Britain’s plans for ‘Operation Unthinkable’, June 1945. Didn’t happen, but intriguing straw in wind/indication of the way western strategists were thinking. NB Britain’s assumption of continued leadership role (despite recognition that plan couldn’t succeed without US help). All this about to change ... • Big Boy. Bombing of Hiroshima, Nagasaki, Aug. 1945 doesn’t just end WWII secures superpower status for USA • A War of Rhetoric. Stalin/Churchill speeches – incompatibility capitalism and communism (Feb. 1946)/’Iron Curtain’ (Mar. 1946) • Gifts to the Greeks. Civil war in newly-liberated Greece. Communists backed by USSR; monarchists by Britain. Civil War breaks out (May 1946). US support for Greek anti-communists (and, by implication, other comparable groups) firmed up in ‘Truman Doctrine’, March 1947. • Au Revoir, Indochine. First Indochina War, 1946–54. Against French, of course – though they had discreet support from USA, while Viet Minh openly assisted by Soviets. Final defeat for French at Dien Bien Phu, March–May 1954. (Maybe just mention Algeria here? Not sure it merits own entry in this context ...) Ho Chi Minh’s communists in control in North; succession of US-backed dictatorships in Republic of Vietnam. • ‘People’ Power. Communist takeover in Czechoslovakia, Feb. 1948. Quick sketch of situation in other Iron Curtain countries. • Buying Allegiance? Marshall Plan inaugurated, Apr. 1948. (NB aid offered to Soviet Bloc as well but refused. Underlined East–West divide.) • Blockade! Berlin Blockade and Air Lift, Jun. 1948–May 1949. Dramatically highlighted Europe’s new divisions. • Colonial Concerns. Malayan Emergency, Jun. 1948–60. (Paradigmatic for succession of liberation struggles in former European colonies now vacated by Japan.) • The Yugoslav Exception. Tito’s split with Stalin, 1948–9. Leadership of Non- Aligned Movement, from 1955. • A Dismal Prophecy. Having already ruffled Soviet feathers with his satirical allegory Animal Farm (1945), Eng. writer George Orwell summed up the dismal achievements of the totalitarian in Nineteen Eighty-Four, published Jun. 1949. • Parity Restored. Soviet nuclear bomb tested, August 1949. • ‘Bamboo Curtain’. Establishment of PRC, Oct (and of west-orientated RoC, Taiwan, Dec.) 19491950s • ‘I have here in my hand ...’ Joe McCarthy speech, 9 Feb. 1950. Start of witchhunt. HUAC hearings; Hollywood Blacklist, etc. • The Red Rosenbergs. Julius and Ethel arrested as Soviet spies, July 1950. Convicted and executed 1953. (Despite strenuous campaign to save their posthumous reputations, and suggestions that the charges against them had been antisemitic in origin, discoveries in Soviet archives later confirmed their status as Russian agents. • A Friend in Francisco. A reluctant Pres. Truman prevailed on to mend fences with Franco’s dictatorship as bulwark against Communism. Marshall aid, hitherto withheld, made available to Spain from late 1950. • Cambridge Reds. Defection of Guy Burgess and Donald Maclean. Cambridge 5. Kim Philby to follow Jan. 1963. • ‘The Forgotten War’. Korea, Jun. 1950–Jul. 1953 • An Escalating Arms Race. British A-Bomb detonated, 3 October, 1952; US H-Bomb first detonated, 1 Nov, 1952 • ‘Dissolve the People ...’ Workers’ Uprising in E. Berlin, 1953. Violent suppression famously satirized by leftist playwright/poet Bertolt Brecht. • Playing Dominos. US interventions Iran, Guatemala, both March 1954. Eisenhower introduces idea of ‘domino theory’ in speech that April. • ‘His Intolerance, His Brutality and His Abuse of Power’. Stalin’s rule denounced by Khrushchev at 20th Congress Sov. Comm. Party, 25 Feb. 1956. • Repression Resumed. Soviet interventions Posnan, Poland, Jun., Hungary, Oct. 1956 • Stand-Off in Suez. Row over Nasser’s Egypt buying arms from the Soviet bloc prompts West to withdraw aid from Aswan Dam project. Nasser retaliates by nationalizing Suez Canal. Attempt by Britain, France and Israel to topple him. Suez Crisis, Oct. 1956 • The Frontier Above. Sputnik 1957; prompted Kennedy’s ‘New Frontier’ speech Jul. 1960. • Look Before You Leap. China inaugurates ‘Great Leap Forward’ Jan. 1958. Will end in catastrophic famine. • What the Doctor Ordered. Poet and novelist Boris Pasternak (author of Doctor Zhivago, 1957) wins Nobel Prize for Literature, 1958. Soviets furious. • ‘Socialism or Death!’ Cuban Revolution (broke out 1953) prevails, Jan. 1959. (Explicitly aligned with USSR from Dec. 1960.) • Law or Brigandage? Khrushchev’s shoe-banging address at UN, Sept. 1959. Angry at intrusions by US spy-planes. Main content of speech largely about USSR’s support for winding up of colonialism. • Road of Resistance. NVA begin opening up ‘Ho Chi Minh Trail’ to south, where Viet Cong are campaigning against Ngo Dinh Diem’s US-backed government. (Much of it ran through Laos, drawing that country into conflict later.) 1959.1960s • The Man Who Fell to Earth. U2/Gary Powers, May 1960 • Red Flag Rift. Sino-Soviet Split. Jun. 1960. • Castro Comes to Harlem. Cuban leader arrives in NY to address UN; meets Malcolm X, Allen Ginsberg and other US figures as well as leading ‘Third World’ statesmen. Sept. 1960. • ‘No Longer Your Monkeys’. Life and death of Patrice Lumumba. Quote is from 1960. Republic of Congo (now DRC) independent from June 1960; Lumumba its PM but for just a few weeks before being overthrown by US-(and France- and Belgium-)backed Mobutu. Killed 17 Jan. 1961. • Counterrevolutionary Carve-Up. Bay of Pigs, Apr. 1961 • Dancing for Democracy. Rudolf Nureyev defects, Jun. 1961 • The Concrete Curtain. Berlin Wall built, Aug. 1961 • Superpower Poker. Cuban Missile Crisis 1963 • The False Flag of Freedom. Gulf of Tonkin Incident, Aug. 1964. • The Atomic Orient. China tests A-Bombs, Oct. 1964 • Confusion in the Caribbean. US Marines sent to Dominican Republic, Apr. 1965. Some years of instability after Trujillo’s death, 1961. Overthrow of military dictatorship spooked Johnson Administration after Cuba. Glance at situation Nicaragua, Haiti, etc. • Thunderstorm. US presence in Vietnam, established by JFK, 1961, beefed up with launch of Operation Rolling Thunder against NVA and Viet Cong positions in Vietnam and Laos (Feb. 1965) and dispatch of additional 60,000 US troops (more from allies) Apr. 1965 • Big News from Bangkok. Anti-communist ASEAN alliance launched, Aug. 1967. • ‘Shoot, Coward ...’ Che Guevara killed, La Higuera, Bolivia, 9 Oct. 1967 • ‘Never Forget History’. Quote’s from Indonesian leader Sukarno, now deposed at second attempt by Suharto (sworn in as Pres., Mar. 1968). Wave of anti- Communist repression ensues. • Spring Turns Sour. Prague Spring. Uprising crushed August, 1968.1970s • The Storm Spreads. Tet Offensive of early 1968 had underlined ineffectiveness of what should have been irresistible US assault in Vietnam and Laos up to that point. Mounting US frustration reflected in extension of conflict to Cambodia, Apr. 1970. • Egypt Swings West. Nasser having died in 1970, Sadat’s ‘Corrective Revolution’ de-Nasserized the govt in Egypt. Soviet advisers expelled, May 1971. • Meeting Mao. Pres. Nixon’s visit to PRC, Feb. 1972. • Bobby Beats Boris. Fischer–Spassky, Reykjavik, Sept. 1972. • Saving Face. Loss of US momentum in Vietnam – and increasing ‘Vietnamization’ of the conflict, from 1970 (maybe even 1969 – despite ‘Storm Spreads’ entry above) led, slowly but inevitably, to ceasefire with North, Jan. 1973. • A Chilean Tragedy. Pinochet’s US-backed Coup in Chile, Sept. 1973. Death of Allende. • Aleksandr in Exile. Novelist Aleksandr Solzhenitsy, Nobel Prizewinner 1970, stripped of Soviet citizenship, 1974. • The Scientist and the State. Physicist and peace activist Andrei Sakharov, Nobel Peace Prize, 1975. Not allowed to go to Stockholm to collect it. • Red Ruin. Pol Pot’s Khmer Rouge come to power in Cambodia, ushering in era of ‘Killing Fields’. • Fall of Saigon. Republic of Vietnam left fighting increasingly futile rearguard action. State finally collapsed and capital taken, Apr. 1975. • Democracy and Death. East Timor’s declaration of independence (Nov. 1975) sparks long and bloody programme of repression by Suharto’s Indonesia. • African Agony. Soviet- (and Cuban-)backed MPLA take power in Angola, Feb. 1976. Lengthy civil war with UNITA (till 2002) ensues. Parallel conflict in Mozambique, where FRELIMO govt beset by RENAMO insurgency, 1977–92. • A Thorn in the Flesh. CIA’s persistent (and sometimes bizarre) attempts to assassinate Castro over the years revealed by Church Committee, 1975–6. • A Post-Mao Mellowing? Death of Mao, 1976. Economic reforms in China announced by Deng Xiaoping, Dec. 1978 • Of Socialists and Sonsofbitches. Sandinistas come to power in Nicaragua, Jul. 1979 • Afghan Outrage. Soviet-supported government in Afghanistan tottering. Russian intervention, Dec. 19791980s • Time Out. Moscow Olympics. Boycotted by 66 countries, following US example, in aftermath of Afghanistan invasion. Jul./Aug. 1980. (Will lead to retaliatory boycott of LA, 1984.) • Faith, Hope and Solidarity. Poles inspired by visit of Pope JPII (1979). Gdansk shipyard protests, Poland: birth of Solidarity, Aug. 1980. Lech Walesa becomes international hero. (But Gen. Jaruzelski will introduce martial law, Dec. 1981.) • ‘Star Wars’. Couple of weeks after his ‘Evil Empire’ speech, Pres. Reagan’s SDI announced, Mar. 1983 • Rematch in Moscow. Shades of Fischer–Spassky (1972) in Karpov v Kasparov Chess Match, 1984–5 • A New Broom. Mikhail Gorbachev becomes Soviet Premier (Mar. 1985). Policies of Perestroika and Glasnost. Moratorium on nuclear weapons testing. • Out of Afghanistan. After accession of Mohammad Najibullah’s National Reconciliation govt the previous year, Sov. withdrawal from Afghanistan begins, May 1988. • Drawing the Curtain. Gorbachev announces USSR will no longer intervene militarily in Eastern Europe, Dec. 1988. Consequences in e.g. Hungary, Poland, Czech Republic, Bulgaria, Romania in months that follow. (See also Berlin Wall bit below ...) • Beijing Bloodshed. Massacre of pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square, Jun. 1989 • Breaking Down the Wall. Fall of Berlin Wall, Nov. 19901990s • Under New Management. Boris Yeltsin elected Pres. Russia, May 1990. (Though NB, Gorbachev’s USSR still exists, at least in theory, as overarching state.) • Breaking Free. Referendums in Baltic states and Georgia lead to their independence, early months of 1991; other Caucasian and Central Asian states follow in course of the year. • Red Reaction. Unsuccessful (but scary while it lasts) ‘August Coup’ in Russia, Aug. 1991. • A Post-Communist Christmas. Gorbachev resigns; Soviet Union essentially wound up; Yeltsin calls George H.W. Bush, who announces end of the Cold War. Time for a ‘New World Order’ ... • The End of History? Fukuyama’s study. Glance at other potential problems, from gangsterism in states of former Soviet Union to Islamic radicalism elsewhere.