Sarah Kate Raphael, Ph. D. (2008), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Currently works as an archaeologists in Jerusalem. She has published articles on the medieval Levant and a book, Muslim Fortresses in the Levant Between Crusaders and Mongols (Routledge, 2010).

• List of Figures, Tables and Maps ixAcknowledgements xiiiNotes on Transliteration xvAbbreviations xviiIntroduction 1Historical Background 4The Geographical Framework 5Resources, Environmental Disasters and Conflict 6PART ONE: DROUGHTS AND FAMINES1. A Short Survey of Climate in the Levant, Iraq and North Africa 13The Defijinition of Drought 19Assessing the Severity of Medieval Droughts 212. Agriculture in Greater Syria 29The Agricultural Hinterlands of the Syrian Cities 30Grain-growing Regions in the Eastern Mediterranean 33Salination, Soil Erosion and Black Winds 40Animal Husbandry and the Role of Nomadic Tribes 44Drawing the Line: Defending Sedentary Interests 523. Preparing for and Coping with Droughts and Famines 55Granaries and Storage Conditions: Fortresses in the Levant and their Role as Granaries 56Preparing for and Coping with Droughts among Nomads 68Rituals, Famine Foods and the Question of Cannibalism 694. Droughts and Famines: Social, Military and Political Consequences 73Conflicts and Peace Treaties Driven by Droughts and Famines 741178-1181, the Longest of the Twelfth-Century Droughts 76The Longest of the Thirteenth-Century Droughts 87Mega Droughts across the Middle East 905. The Fourteenth Century: Gradual Changes in the Weather 95Long and Short-term Relief Programs Initiated by al-Nāṣir Muḥammad 97The End of the Medieval Warm Period in the Levant (?) 101Rare and Unusual Weather Tales 106PART TWO: EARTHQUAKES AND THE POLITICS OF MASS DESTRUCTIONAssessing the Force of Historical Earthquakes 115A Brief Geological Survey of Faults and Plate Tectonics in the Levant 1186. Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Century Earthquakes and their Impact on Crusader-Muslim Afffairs 127I Feel the Earth Move under My Feet: Twelfth Century Earth quakes 127The 1202 Earthquake—A Link in a Series of Peace Treaties 138Domestic Architecture and Earthquakes 143Raw Materials and Structural Behaviour 144Trial and Error—Some Archaeological Evidence Depicting Changes in Fortress Construction 147The Citadel of Damascus 150Crac des Chevaliers (Hisn al-Akrad) 151The Round Free Standing Tower at Safad 155The Mamluk Octagonal Towers at al-Ṣubayba and Karak 158The Active Fault below the Crusader Fortress of Vadum Jacob 161PART THREE: SMALL AND DESTRUCTIVE ENEMIES7. The Curse of Insects and Rodents on an Agricultural Based Economy 167Locusts 168Recipes for Disasters 172Waves of Mice and Rats 178PART FOUR: DEARTH, CRISIS AND VIOLENCE8. Climatic Fluctuations, Political Stability and Military Strength 187Glossary 195Bibliography 197Index 209

"The study contributes to a new and crucial recognition of links between climate and human history." - Reference & Research Book News December 2013"The study of Raphael gives a good synopsis and expands our knowledge particularly about the influence of droughts and earthquakes in the Levant" - Thomas Wozniak (Institut für Mittelalterliche Geschichte, Philipps-Universität, Marburg), sehepunkte 14 (2014), Nr. 6

Sarah Kate Raphael, Ph. D. (2008), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Currently works as an archaeologists in Jerusalem. She has published articles on the medieval Levant and a book, Muslim Fortresses in the Levant Between Crusaders and Mongols (Routledge, 2010).

• List of Figures, Tables and Maps ixAcknowledgements xiiiNotes on Transliteration xvAbbreviations xviiIntroduction 1Historical Background 4The Geographical Framework 5Resources, Environmental Disasters and Conflict 6PART ONE: DROUGHTS AND FAMINES1. A Short Survey of Climate in the Levant, Iraq and North Africa 13The Defijinition of Drought 19Assessing the Severity of Medieval Droughts 212. Agriculture in Greater Syria 29The Agricultural Hinterlands of the Syrian Cities 30Grain-growing Regions in the Eastern Mediterranean 33Salination, Soil Erosion and Black Winds 40Animal Husbandry and the Role of Nomadic Tribes 44Drawing the Line: Defending Sedentary Interests 523. Preparing for and Coping with Droughts and Famines 55Granaries and Storage Conditions: Fortresses in the Levant and their Role as Granaries 56Preparing for and Coping with Droughts among Nomads 68Rituals, Famine Foods and the Question of Cannibalism 694. Droughts and Famines: Social, Military and Political Consequences 73Conflicts and Peace Treaties Driven by Droughts and Famines 741178-1181, the Longest of the Twelfth-Century Droughts 76The Longest of the Thirteenth-Century Droughts 87Mega Droughts across the Middle East 905. The Fourteenth Century: Gradual Changes in the Weather 95Long and Short-term Relief Programs Initiated by al-Nāṣir Muḥammad 97The End of the Medieval Warm Period in the Levant (?) 101Rare and Unusual Weather Tales 106PART TWO: EARTHQUAKES AND THE POLITICS OF MASS DESTRUCTIONAssessing the Force of Historical Earthquakes 115A Brief Geological Survey of Faults and Plate Tectonics in the Levant 1186. Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Century Earthquakes and their Impact on Crusader-Muslim Afffairs 127I Feel the Earth Move under My Feet: Twelfth Century Earth quakes 127The 1202 Earthquake—A Link in a Series of Peace Treaties 138Domestic Architecture and Earthquakes 143Raw Materials and Structural Behaviour 144Trial and Error—Some Archaeological Evidence Depicting Changes in Fortress Construction 147The Citadel of Damascus 150Crac des Chevaliers (Hisn al-Akrad) 151The Round Free Standing Tower at Safad 155The Mamluk Octagonal Towers at al-Ṣubayba and Karak 158The Active Fault below the Crusader Fortress of Vadum Jacob 161PART THREE: SMALL AND DESTRUCTIVE ENEMIES7. The Curse of Insects and Rodents on an Agricultural Based Economy 167Locusts 168Recipes for Disasters 172Waves of Mice and Rats 178PART FOUR: DEARTH, CRISIS AND VIOLENCE8. Climatic Fluctuations, Political Stability and Military Strength 187Glossary 195Bibliography 197Index 209

"The study contributes to a new and crucial recognition of links between climate and human history." - Reference & Research Book News December 2013"The study of Raphael gives a good synopsis and expands our knowledge particularly about the influence of droughts and earthquakes in the Levant" - Thomas Wozniak (Institut für Mittelalterliche Geschichte, Philipps-Universität, Marburg), sehepunkte 14 (2014), Nr. 6

Sarah Kate Raphael, Ph. D. (2008), The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Israel. Currently works as an archaeologists in Jerusalem. She has published articles on the medieval Levant and a book, Muslim Fortresses in the Levant Between Crusaders and Mongols (Routledge, 2010).

• List of Figures, Tables and Maps ixAcknowledgements xiiiNotes on Transliteration xvAbbreviations xviiIntroduction 1Historical Background 4The Geographical Framework 5Resources, Environmental Disasters and Conflict 6PART ONE: DROUGHTS AND FAMINES1. A Short Survey of Climate in the Levant, Iraq and North Africa 13The Defijinition of Drought 19Assessing the Severity of Medieval Droughts 212. Agriculture in Greater Syria 29The Agricultural Hinterlands of the Syrian Cities 30Grain-growing Regions in the Eastern Mediterranean 33Salination, Soil Erosion and Black Winds 40Animal Husbandry and the Role of Nomadic Tribes 44Drawing the Line: Defending Sedentary Interests 523. Preparing for and Coping with Droughts and Famines 55Granaries and Storage Conditions: Fortresses in the Levant and their Role as Granaries 56Preparing for and Coping with Droughts among Nomads 68Rituals, Famine Foods and the Question of Cannibalism 694. Droughts and Famines: Social, Military and Political Consequences 73Conflicts and Peace Treaties Driven by Droughts and Famines 741178-1181, the Longest of the Twelfth-Century Droughts 76The Longest of the Thirteenth-Century Droughts 87Mega Droughts across the Middle East 905. The Fourteenth Century: Gradual Changes in the Weather 95Long and Short-term Relief Programs Initiated by al-Nāṣir Muḥammad 97The End of the Medieval Warm Period in the Levant (?) 101Rare and Unusual Weather Tales 106PART TWO: EARTHQUAKES AND THE POLITICS OF MASS DESTRUCTIONAssessing the Force of Historical Earthquakes 115A Brief Geological Survey of Faults and Plate Tectonics in the Levant 1186. Twelfth and Early Thirteenth Century Earthquakes and their Impact on Crusader-Muslim Afffairs 127I Feel the Earth Move under My Feet: Twelfth Century Earth quakes 127The 1202 Earthquake—A Link in a Series of Peace Treaties 138Domestic Architecture and Earthquakes 143Raw Materials and Structural Behaviour 144Trial and Error—Some Archaeological Evidence Depicting Changes in Fortress Construction 147The Citadel of Damascus 150Crac des Chevaliers (Hisn al-Akrad) 151The Round Free Standing Tower at Safad 155The Mamluk Octagonal Towers at al-Ṣubayba and Karak 158The Active Fault below the Crusader Fortress of Vadum Jacob 161PART THREE: SMALL AND DESTRUCTIVE ENEMIES7. The Curse of Insects and Rodents on an Agricultural Based Economy 167Locusts 168Recipes for Disasters 172Waves of Mice and Rats 178PART FOUR: DEARTH, CRISIS AND VIOLENCE8. Climatic Fluctuations, Political Stability and Military Strength 187Glossary 195Bibliography 197Index 209

"The study contributes to a new and crucial recognition of links between climate and human history." - Reference & Research Book News December 2013"The study of Raphael gives a good synopsis and expands our knowledge particularly about the influence of droughts and earthquakes in the Levant" - Thomas Wozniak (Institut für Mittelalterliche Geschichte, Philipps-Universität, Marburg), sehepunkte 14 (2014), Nr. 6