Christian Theology

ALISTER E. McGRATH is currently Andreas Idreos Professor of Science and Religion at the University of Oxford; he was previously Professor of Theology and Education at King’s College, London. He is regarded as one of the world’s leading Protestant theologians and is the author of some of the world’s most widely used theological textbooks, including the bestselling The Christian Theology Reader (5th edition, Wiley Blackwell, 2016), Christianity (Wiley Blackwell, 2015), and Science and Religion (Wiley Blackwell, 2010). He is in constant demand as a speaker at conferences throughout the world.

• List of Illustrations xxiPreface xxiiiTo the Student: How to Use This Book xxviiTo the Teacher: How to Use This Book xxixThe Structure of the Book: The Fifth and Sixth Editions Compared xxxiiiVideo and Audio Resources xxxvPart I Landmarks: Periods, Themes, and Personalities of Christian Theology 1Introduction 31 The Patristic Period, c.100–c.700 5The Early Centers of Theological Activity 5An Overview of the Patristic Period 7A clarification of terms 8The theological agenda of the period 8Key Theologians 10Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) 10Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 10Tertullian (c.160–c.220) 10Origen (c.185–c.254) 10Cyprian of Carthage (died 258) 11Athanasius (c.293–373) 11The Cappadocian fathers 11Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 11Key Theological Debates and Developments 12The extent of the New Testament canon 12The role of tradition: the Gnostic controversies 13The fixing of the ecumenical creeds 14The two natures of Jesus Christ: the Arian controversy 15The doctrine of the Trinity 17The doctrine of the church: the Donatist controversy 18The doctrine of grace: the Pelagian controversy 18Key Names, Words, and Phrases 19Questions for Chapter 1 192 The Middle Ages and the Renaissance, c.700–c.1500 21On Defining the “Middle Ages” 22Theological Landmarks in Western Europe 24The rise of medieval schools of theology 24The founding of the universities 25A theological textbook: the Four Books of the Sentences 26“Cathedrals of the Mind”: scholasticism 26The Italian Renaissance and the rise of humanism 26Byzantine Theology: Major Themes 27Key Theologians 29John of Damascus (c.676–749) 29Simeon the New Theologian (949–1022) 30Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109) 30Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) 31Duns Scotus (c.1266–1308) 32William of Ockham (c.1285–1347) 32Erasmus of Rotterdam (1466–1536) 33Key Theological Debates and Developments 34The consolidation of the patristic heritage 34The exploration of the role of reason in theology 34Scholasticism: the development of theological systems 35The development of sacramental theology 35The development of the theology of grace 35The role of Mary in the scheme of salvation 36The Renaissance: returning to the original sources of theology 36Key Names, Words, and Phrases 37Questions for Chapter 2 373 The Age of Reformation, c.1500–c.1750 38The Main Movements of the Age of Reformation 38The German Reformation: Lutheranism 39The Swiss Reformation: the Reformed church 40The radical Reformation: Anabaptism 41The English Reformation: Anglicanism 42The Catholic Reformation 42The Second Reformation: confessionalization 43Post-Reformation Movements 43The consolidation of Catholicism 44Puritanism 44Pietism 45The Copernican and Galilean Controversies 46Key Theologians 47Martin Luther (1483–1546) 47Huldrych Zwingli (1484–1531) 48John Calvin (1509–64) 48Teresa of Avilà (1515–82) 48Theodore Beza (1519–1605) 49Robert Bellarmine (1542–1621) 49Johann Gerhard (1582–1637) 49Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) 49Key Theological Debates and Developments 49The sources of theology 50The doctrine of grace 50The doctrine of the sacraments 51The doctrine of the church 51Developments in Theological Literature 51Catechisms 52Confessions of faith 52Works of systematic theology 53Key Names, Words, and Phrases 55Questions for Chapter 3 564 The Modern Period, c.1750 to the Present 57Theology and Cultural Developments in the West 57The wars of religion and disinterest in religion 58The rise of the Enlightenment 58The Enlightenment critique of Christian theology: some case studies 59Marxism: an intellectual rival to Christianity 61Darwinism: a new theory of human origins 62The First World War: a theology of crisis 62Postmodernism: beyond the modern theological agenda 63Globalization: world Christianity and world religions 65Key Theologians 67F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) 67John Henry Newman (1801–90) 67Karl Barth (1886–1968) 68Paul Tillich (1886–1965) 68Karl Rahner (1904–84) 68Hans Urs von Balthasar (1905–88) 69Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) 69Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014) 69Major Modern Theological Movements 70Liberal Protestantism 70Modernism 71Neo-orthodoxy 72Liberation theologies 74Feminism 75Black and “womanist” theology 77Postliberalism 78Radical orthodoxy 79Key Names, Words, and Phrases 80Questions for Chapter 4 80Part II Sources and Methods 815 Getting Started: Preliminaries 83What is Faith? 83Defining Theology 85A working definition of theology 85The historical development of the idea of theology 86The development of theology as an academic discipline 87The Architecture of Theology 89Biblical studies 89Systematic theology 89Philosophical theology 90Historical theology 91Practical, or pastoral, theology 92Spirituality, or mystical theology 93Apologetics 94The Question of Prolegomena 94Commitment and Neutrality in Theology 95Orthodoxy and Heresy 97Historical aspects 97Theological aspects 98The Theology of the Relationship Between Christianity and Secular Culture 99Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165) 99Tertullian (c.160–c.220) 100Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 100The twentieth century: H. Richard Niebuhr (1894–1962) 102Questions for Chapter 5 1036 The Sources of Theology 104Scripture 104The Old Testament 105The New Testament 105Other works: deutero-canonical and apocryphal writings 107The relationship between the Old and New Testaments 109The canon of Scripture: historical and theological issues 111The Word of God 112Narrative theology 113Methods of interpretation of Scripture 115Theories of the inspiration of Scripture 120Tradition 122A single-source theory of tradition 125A dual-source theory of tradition 125The total rejection of tradition 126Theology and worship: the importance of liturgical tradition 126Reason 127Reason and revelation: three models 127Enlightenment rationalism 129Criticisms of Enlightenment rationalism 130Religious Experience 130Experience as the basis of Christian theology 131Theology connects with human experience 132Theology as the interpreter of human experience 132God as a misinterpretation of human experience 133Questions for Chapter 6 1347 Knowledge of God: Natural and Revealed 135The Idea of Revelation 136Models of Revelation 137Revelation as doctrine 137Revelation as presence 138Revelation as experience 139Revelation as history 140Natural Theology: Its Scope and Limits 141Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) on natural theology 142John Calvin (1509–64) on natural theology 143The Renaissance: God’s two books 144Eastern Orthodoxy on natural theology 145The Barth–Brunner debate (1934) 146Approaches to Discerning God in Nature 147Human reason 147The ordering of the world 147The beauty of the world 148The Natural Sciences and Christian Theology: Models of Interaction 148Warfare: the “conflict” thesis 149Isolation: the “non-overlapping” thesis 150Enrichment: the complementarity thesis 150Questions for Chapter 7 1518 Philosophy and Theology: Dialogue and Debate 152Philosophy and Theology: The Notion of the “Handmaid” 153Can God’s Existence Be Proved? Four Approaches 155The ontological argument of Anselm of Canterbury (c.1033–1109) 156The “Five Ways” of Thomas Aquinas (c.1225–74) 158The kalam argument 160A classic argument from design: William Paley (1743–1805) 161The Nature of Theological Language 163Does theological language refer to anything? 164Apophatic and kataphatic approaches 164Questions for Chapter 8 171Part III Christian Theology 1739 The Doctrine of God 175Is God Male? 175A Personal God 177Defining “person” 178Dialogical personalism: Martin Buber (1878–1965) 179Can God Suffer? 181The classical view: the impassibility of God 182The twentieth century: a paradigm shift? 183A suffering God: Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) 184The death of God? 185The Omnipotence of God 187Defining omnipotence 187The two powers of God 188The notion of divine self-limitation 189God’s Action in the World 190“Special” and “general” divine action 190Deism: God acts through the laws of nature 191Thomism: God acts through secondary causes 192Process theology: God acts through persuasion 193God as Creator 194Development of the doctrine of creation 194Creation and the rejection of dualism 196The doctrine of creation of Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 197The doctrine of creation ex nihilo 198Implications of the doctrine of creation 199Models of God as creator 200Creation and Christian approaches to ecology 201Theodicies: The Problem of Evil 202Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 203Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 203Karl Barth (1886–1968) 204Alvin Plantinga (born 1932) 205Other recent contributions 205Questions for Chapter 9 20610 The Person of Jesus Christ 207The Place of Jesus Christ in Christian Theology 208Jesus Christ is the historical point of departure for Christianity 208Jesus Christ reveals God 208Jesus Christ is the bearer of salvation 209Jesus Christ defines the shape of the redeemed life 209New Testament Christological Titles 209Messiah 209Son of God 210Son of Man 211Lord 211Savior 212God 213The Patristic Debate Over the Person of Christ 214Early explorations: Ebionitism and Docetism 214Justin Martyr (c.100–c.165): the Logos Christology 216Arius (c.260–336): Jesus Christ as “supreme among the creatures” 217Athanasius (c.293–373): Jesus Christ as God incarnate 218The Alexandrian school: Apollinarianism and its critics 220The Antiochene school: Theodore of Mopsuestia (c.350–428) 221The “communication of attributes” 223The Council of Chalcedon (451) 224Medieval Christology: The Relationship Between the Incarnation and the Fall 224The Relationship Between the Person and Work of Christ 225Christological Models: Classical and Contemporary 227The substantial presence of God in Christ 227Christ as mediator between God and humanity 229The revelational presence of God in Christ 230Christ as a symbolic presence of God 231Christ as the bearer of the Holy Spirit 232Christ as the example of a godly life 233Christ as a hero 234Kenotic approaches to Christology 235The Quest for the Historical Jesus 236The original quest for the historical Jesus 237The quest for the religious personality of Jesus 237The critique of the quest, 1890–1910 238The quest suspended: Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976) 239The new quest for the historical Jesus 240The third quest for the historical Jesus 241The Resurrection of Christ: History and Interpretation 242The Enlightenment: resurrection as nonevent 242David Friedrich Strauss (1808–74): resurrection as myth 242Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976): resurrection as an event in the experience of the disciples 243Karl Barth (1886–1968): resurrection as an historical event beyond critical inquiry 243Wolfhart Pannenberg (1928–2014): resurrection as an historical event open to critical inquiry 244Questions for Chapter 10 24511 The Nature and Basis of Salvation 246Christian Approaches to Salvation 248Salvation is linked with Jesus Christ 248Salvation is shaped by Jesus Christ 249The eschatological dimension of salvation 250The Foundations of Salvation: The Cross of Christ 251The cross as a sacrifice 251The cross as a victory 255The cross and forgiveness 259The cross as a demonstration of God’s love 264Violence and the cross: the theory of René Girard (1923–2015) 268“Can a Male Savior Save Women?” Feminists on Atonement 269Models of Salvation in Christ: Classical and Contemporary 270Some Pauline images of salvation 270Deification: being made divine 271Righteousness in the sight of God 272Personal holiness 273Authentic human existence 273Political liberation 274Spiritual freedom 274The Appropriation of Salvation in Christ 275The church as the means of salvation 275Christ as a representative 276Participation in Christ 276Christ as a substitute 277The Scope of Salvation in Christ 277Universalism: all will be saved 277Only believers will be saved 278Particular redemption: only the elect will be saved 278Questions for Chapter 11 27912 The Holy Spirit 280The Biblical Witness 280The Patristic Period 281Early patristic reflections: Irenaeus of Lyons (c.130–c.202) 282Athanasius (c.293–373): the debate over the divinity of the Holy Spirit 282The Council of Constantinople (381) 284Augustine of Hippo (354–430): the spirit as a bond of unity 285Symbols of the Spirit: a dove, fire, and oil 285The Filioque Controversy 287The Holy Spirit: Recent Discussions 290The Great Awakening: Jonathan Edwards (1703–58) 290The Second Vatican Council on the Holy Spirit 291Liberation theology: the Spirit and empowerment 292Feminism: the Spirit and relationality 293The Functions of the Spirit 294God’s active presence in the world 295The illumination of revelation 295The appropriation of salvation 296The renewal of the Christian life 297Questions for Chapter 12 29813 The Trinity 299Approaching the Christian Doctrine of the Trinity 299The apparent illogicality of the doctrine 299The Trinity as a statement about Jesus Christ 301The Trinity as a statement about the Christian God 301Islamic critiques of the doctrine of the Trinity 301The Biblical Foundations of the Doctrine of the Trinity 302The Historical Development of the Doctrine 303The emergence of the trinitarian vocabulary 304The emergence of trinitarian concepts 304Rationalist critiques of trinitarianism: the eclipse of the Trinity, 1700–1900 306The problem of visualization: analogies of the Trinity 307“Economic” and “essential” approaches to the Trinity 308Two Trinitarian Heresies 308Modalism: chronological and functional 308Tritheism 310The Trinity: Six Classic and Contemporary Approaches 311The Cappadocian fathers 311Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 312Karl Barth (1886–1968) 313Karl Rahner (1904–84) 315John Macquarrie (1919–2007) 316Robert Jenson (born 1930) 317Some Discussions of the Trinity in Recent Theology 318F. D. E. Schleiermacher (1768–1834) on the dogmatic location of the Trinity 318Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926) on the social Trinity 319Eberhard Jüngel (born 1934) on the Trinity and metaphysics 320Catherine Mowry LaCugna (1952–97) on the Trinity and salvation 321Sarah Coakley (born 1951) on feminism and the Trinity 321The Trinitarian Renaissance: Some Examples 323A trinitarian theology of mission 323A trinitarian theology of worship 324A trinitarian theology of atonement 324A trinitarian ecclesiology 325Questions for Chapter 13 32614 Human Nature, Sin, and Grace 327The Place of Humanity Within Creation: Early Reflections 327The image of God 327The concept of sin 329Augustine of Hippo (354–430) and the Pelagian Controversy 330The “freedom of the will” 330The nature of sin 331The nature of grace 332The basis of salvation 333The Medieval Synthesis of the Doctrine of Grace 334The Augustinian legacy 334The medieval distinction between actual and habitual grace 335The late medieval critique of habitual grace 336The medieval debate over the nature and grounds of merit 336The Reformation Debates over the Doctrine of Grace 337From “salvation by grace” to “justification by faith” 337The theological breakthrough of Martin Luther (1483–1546) 338Luther on justifying faith 339The concept of forensic justification 339John Calvin (1509–64) on justification 341The Council of Trent on justification 341The Doctrine of Predestination 344Augustine of Hippo (354–430) 344Catholic debates: Thomism, Molinism, and Jansenism 345Protestant debates: Calvinism and Arminianism 346Karl Barth (1886–1968) 348Predestination and economics: the Weber thesis 349The Darwinian Controversy and the Nature of Humanity 350Young-earth creationism 351Old-earth creationism 351Intelligent design 351Evolutionary theism 352Questions for Chapter 14 35315 The Church 354Biblical Models of the Church 354The Old Testament 354The New Testament 355The Early Development of Ecclesiology 356The Donatist Controversy 358Early Protestant Doctrines of the Church 360Martin Luther (1483–1546) 360John Calvin (1509–64) 361The radical Reformation 363Christ and the Church: Some Twentieth-Century Themes 364Christ is present sacramentally 364Christ is present through the word 366Christ is present through the Spirit 367The Second Vatican Council on the Church 367The church as communion 368The church as the people of God 369The church as a charismatic community 369The “Notes” of the Church 370One 370Holy 373Catholic 374Apostolic 377Priesthood and Ministry: Some Major Themes 378Questions for Chapter 15 38016 The Sacraments 381The Early Development of Sacramental Theology 382The Definition of a Sacrament 383The Donatist Controversy: Sacramental Efficacy 386The Multiple Functions of the Sacraments 388Sacraments convey grace 388Sacraments strengthen faith 389Sacraments enhance unity and commitment within the church 390Sacraments reassure us of God’s promises toward us 391A case study in complexity: the functions of the Eucharist 392The Eucharist: The Question of the Real Presence 395The ninth-century debates over the real presence 395Medieval views on the relationship between “sign” and “sacrament” 396Transubstantiation 397Transignification and transfinalization 399Consubstantiation 400A real absence: memorialism 400The Debate Concerning Infant Baptism 401Infant baptism remits the guilt of original sin 402Infant baptism is grounded in God’s covenant with the church 403Infant baptism is unjustified 403Questions for Chapter 16 40417 Christianity and the World Religions 405Western Pluralism and the Question of Other Religions 406The detached approach 407The committed approach 407Approaches to Religions 407The Enlightenment: religions as a corruption of the original religion of nature 408Ludwig Feuerbach (1804–72): religion as an objectification of human feeling 409Karl Marx: religion as the product of socioeconomic alienation 410Sigmund Freud (1856–1939): religion as wish fulfillment 411Emile Durkheim (1858–1917): religion and ritual 412Mircea Eliade (1907–86): religion and the sacred 413J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973) and C. S. Lewis (1898–1963): religion as myth 413Karl Barth (1886–1968) and Dietrich Bonhoeffer (1906–45): religion as a human invention 414Trinitarian theologies of religion 416Christian Approaches to Other Religions 416Exclusivism 417Inclusivism 419Pluralism 422Questions for Chapter 17 42518 Last Things: The Christian Hope 426Developments in the Doctrine of the Last Things 427The New Testament 427Early Christianity and Roman beliefs about reunion after death 428Augustine of Hippo (354–430): the two cities 429Joachim of Fiore (c.1132–1202): the three ages 430Dante Alighieri (1265–1321): the Divine Comedy 430The Enlightenment: eschatology as superstition 432The twentieth century: the rediscovery of eschatology 432Rudolf Bultmann (1884–1976): the demythologization of eschatology 433Jürgen Moltmann (born 1926): the theology of hope 434Helmut Thielicke (1908–86): ethics and eschatology 435Dispensationalism: the structures of eschatology 436Spe salvi: Benedict XVI (born 1927) on the Christian hope 437N. T. Wright (born 1948) on (not) going to heaven 438The Last Things 439Hell 439Purgatory 441The millennium 442Heaven 443Questions for Chapter 18 446Jargon-Busting: A Glossary of Theological Terms 449Sources of Citations 456Acknowledgments 465Index 466