Chemistry, Biology and Pharmacology of Lichen

Ashoke Kumar Das, PhD, Department of Botany, Abhayapuri College, Gauhati University, Bongaigaon (Assam), India. Ajay Sharma, PhD, Department of Chemistry, Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab, India. Deepika Kathuria, PhD, Department of Chemistry, University Centre for Research and Development (UCRD), Chandigarh University, Gharuan, Punjab, India. Mohammad Javed Ansari, PhD, Department of Botany, Hindu College Moradabad, Moradabad, India. Garima Bhardwaj, PhD, Department of Chemistry, Sant Longowal Institute, Sangrur, India.

• List of Contributors xvPreface xix1 Overview of Lichen 1Ashoke Kumar Das, Subrata Sarkar, and Papori Devi1.1 Introduction 11.2 Distribution 21.3 Morphology and Anatomy 41.4 Reproduction 51.5 Lichen Phytochemicals 61.6 Economic Importance 71.7 Conservation 71.8 Conclusion 82 The Biology of Lichen 13Ludmilla Fitri Untari2.1 Introduction 132.2 Lichen Life Form 142.3 The Internal Structure of Lichen 162.4 Reproduction of Lichen 162.5 Lichen Substrates 183 Taxonomy of Lichen 21Darshita Sinha, Munmi Borkataky, Bhaben Chowardhara, and Ratul Nath3.1 Introduction 213.2 Identification of Lichen 223.3 Nomenclature of Lichen 253.4 Classification of Lichen 263.5 Phylogeny of Lichen 293.6 Molecular Taxonomy of Lichens 303.7 Therapeutic and Commercial Values of Lichen 313.8 Conclusion 314 Lichen as Habitats for Other Organisms 39Ludmilla Fitri Untari4.1 Introduction 394.2 Lichens as Habitat 394.3 Benefits of Living in Lichens 454.4 Importance of Lichen for Biodiversity 454.5 Threats to Lichen Habitats 464.6 Conclusion 465 Ecology of Lichen 49Tridip Boruah, Krity Dulal, and Puja Namo Das5.1 Introduction 495.2 Ecological Habitats 505.3 Ecological Factors for Lichen Development 525.4 Adaptations of Lichen 575.5 Lichens in Extreme Habitat 605.6 Conclusion and Future Prospects 646 Physiology of Lichen 71Farishta Yasmin and Rosni Jabin6.1 Introduction 716.2 Physiological Interaction 736.3 Metabolism 736.4 Physiological Peculiarities 746.5 Conclusion 777 Lichen as Pioneer of Natural Ecosystem 81Bhaskor Kolita and Ridip Kumar Gogoi7.1 Introduction 817.2 Lichens as Pioneer of Ecological Succession 827.3 Impact of Lichen on Natural Ecosystem 847.4 Conclusion 868 Conservation of Lichens 91Beena Kumari, Girish Kumar Sharma, Amit Vaish, Prashant Kumar, and Mohammad Javed Ansari8.1 Introduction 918.2 Important Roles of Lichens 968.3 Biogeography (Geographic Distribution of Lichen) 978.4 Conservation of Lichen Diversity 1008.5 Conservation Challenges of Lichens 1008.6 Recommendation for Conservation of Lichens 1028.7 Conclusion 1059 Lichen at the Age of Climate Change 113Barsha Devi9.1 Introduction 1139.2 Adaptation of Lichen to the Harsh Environment 1149.3 Impact of Climate Change on Lichen Flora 1149.4 Sensitivity of Lichen to Climate Change 1169.5 Lichen as an Indicator of Climate Change 1179.6 Transplant Experiment on Lichen 1189.7 Carbon Sequestration by Lichen 1199.8 Conclusion 12010 Commercial and Traditional Uses of Lichen 125Farak Ali, Shahnaz Alom, Apurba Gohain, Sheikh Rezzak Ali, Nilayan Guha, and Shuby Kumari10.1 Introduction 12510.2 Historical Background 12610.3 Lichen as Ethnomedicine 12710.4 Cultural Aspects of Lichen 12710.5 Commercial Uses of Lichen 13210.6 Conclusion 13311 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens and Their Therapeutic Potential 137Farhan Saeed, Muhammad Afzaal, Muhammad Ahtisham Raza, Habiba Arooj, Mariam Islam, and Rimsha Gulzar11.1 Introduction 13711.2 Diversity in Lichens 13811.3 Bioactive Compounds in Lichens 14011.3.4 Therapeutic Potential of Lichens 14211.3.5 Antimicrobial Activity 14211.3.6 Antioxidant Activity 14711.4 Conclusion 14712 Antioxidant Properties of Lichen 153Hadiqa Faiz ul Rasul, Fareed Afzal, Waseem Khalid, Mateen Ahmad, Shirin gull, Izza Faiz ul Rasool, Maryam Ilyas, and Miral Javed12.1 Introduction 15312.2 Botanical History of Lichens 15412.3 Classification of Lichen 15412.4 Source and Formation of Lichen 15612.5 Antioxidant Property 15712.6 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Activity in Lichens 15812.7 Antioxidant Activity in Parmelia sulcata, Lasallia pustulata, Hypogymnia physodes 16112.8 Constituents Responsible for Antioxidant Behavior in Cetraria islandica 16112.9 Techniques Used to Determine the Antioxidant Activities in Lichens 16212.10 Conclusion 16313 Antimicrobial Activities of Lichens 169Muhammad Zeeshan Ahmed, Tazeen Rao, Nihad Ashraf Khan, Muneeba Aslam, and Yunita Sari Pane13.1 Introduction 16913.2 Antimicrobial Compounds of Lichen 17013.3 Lichen Species Having Antimicrobial Properties 17513.4 Antibacterial Properties 18013.5 Antifungal Properties 18313.6 Conclusion 18814 Lichens: A Source of Anticancer Drugs 193Ari Satia Nugraha, Thi Hai Yen Lam, Hendris Wongso, Lilla Nur Firli, and Paul A. Keller14.1 Introduction 19314.2 Lichen Extracts with Anticancer Activities 19514.3 Lichen Compounds with Anticancer Activities 19514.4 Anticancer of Lichen in Animal Model 22014.5 Conclusion and Future Perspective 22315 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of Parmelia, Cetraria, Cladonia, and Usnea 231Varsha Sharma and Alka Rajput15.1 Introduction 23115.2 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Parmelia 23315.3 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Cetraria 23815.4 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Cladonia 23815.5 Ethnobotanical and Pharmacological Properties of the Genus Usnea 24315.6 Conclusion 24916 Food Values of Lichen 261Ashoke Kumar Das, Subrata Sarkar, Lily Devi, Chatna Hasnu, and Saurabh Bhattacharjee16.1 Introduction 26116.2 Historical Background 26216.3 Lichen as Food for Human 26316.4 Lichen as Spices and Flavor Enhancer 26416.5 Lichens as Beverage 26716.6 Lichens as Feed 26816.7 Conclusion 26917 Lichen as a Raw Material in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries 275Shahnaz Alom, Farak Ali, Bibhuti Busan Kakoti, Sandipan Choudhury, and Abdul Baquee Ahmed17.1 Introduction 27517.2 Historical Background of Lichens Used in Perfume Industry 27617.3 Commercially Viable Lichen Species in Perfumery and Cosmetic Industries 27717.4 Lichen as Perfume and its Chemistry 28117.5 Conclusion 28518 Lichen as Bio Indicators 289Tridip Boruah, Himasri Devi, and Shilpa Sarkar18.1 Introduction 28918.2 Effective Biomonitoring of Lichen Species 29018.3 Methods of Lichen Biomonitoring 29218.4 Lichen as Indicator to Air Pollution 29418.5 Lichen as Heavy Metal Indicator 29618.6 Lichen as Indicator to Toxic Material 30018.7 Conclusion 30119 Lichen Based Nanoparticles 305Swati Gajbhiye and Sanjay J. Dhoble19.1 Introduction 30519.2 Lichen Based Nanoparticles and Their Application 30719.3 Biocompatibility of Lichen Based Nanoparticle 31119.4 Biosynthesis of Lichen-Based Nanoparticles 31219.5 Future Prospects and Conclusions 320References 321Index 325