MIKAEL FALLGREN, PHD, is Senior Researcher at Ericsson Research, Stockholm, Sweden. He was project manager of the 5GCAR project, while also serving as chairman of the 5G PPP Automotive Working Group and vice-chair of the 5G PPP Steering Board. He joined Ericsson as Experienced Researcher in 2011 with focus on wireless access networks. He has been involved in several other European Projects, including EARTH, METIS, METIS-II and 5GCroCo.MARKUS DILLINGER, Dipl.-Ing., is 5G R&D Head for vertical industry, Huawei Technologies, Munich, Germany. He was technical manager of the 5GCAR project. He joined Huawei as Head of Wireless Internet Technologies in 2010 where he led private and public R&D programs for car-to-car, ehealth and automation supporting 3GPP standardization and work for the vertical industry. He is currently member of 5G Health Association and member of 5GAA Executive Committee.TOKTAM MAHMOODI, PHD, is Reader in Wireless Networks, and Director of the Centre for Telecommunications Research, King’s College London, UK. She has worked in telecom industry and led number of research projects in the area of mobile and wireless networks, with applications in tele-health, mission-critical communication, industrial networking, and vehicular networks.TOMMY SVENSSON, PHD, is full Professor, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He is leading research on air interface and wireless networking for access, backhaul/ fronthaul in mobile communications. He was deeply involved in European research towards 4G and 5G, and currently towards 6G. He has also experience from Ericsson AB on core-, radio access-, and microwave networks.

• List of Contributors xiiiForewords xviiPreface xxvList of Abbreviations xxix1 Introduction 11.1 Background and Motivation for C-V2X 21.1.1 Intelligent Transport Systems 21.1.2 Connected Automated Driving 31.1.3 Connected Road User Services 41.2 Toward a Joint Telecom and Automotive Roadmap for CAD 41.2.1 Telecom’s Ambitions for Connected Driving 41.2.2 Automotive’s Ambitions for Automated Driving 61.2.3 Joint Roadmap for CAD 71.3 Communication Technologies for CAD 81.3.1 Standardization of IEEE V2X 101.3.2 Standardization and Regulation Aspects of C-V2X 121.3.2.1 Available C-V2X Releases and Regulations 121.3.2.2 Future Requirements for C-V2X Releases and Regulations 131.4 Structure of this Book 14References 182 Business Models 212.1 Current Market Analysis 222.2 Services Definition for CAD and CRU 232.2.1 Existing CAD and CRU Services 242.2.1.1 Emergency Call 242.2.1.2 Remote Diagnostics 242.2.1.3 Car Sharing 252.2.1.4 OTA Software Updates 252.2.1.5 Predictive Maintenance 252.2.1.6 Real-Time Road Traffic Management and Vehicle Guidance 252.2.2 Emerging CAD Services 252.2.2.1 Perception by Wireless Connectivity and Sensor Sharing 262.2.2.2 High-Definition Maps 262.2.3 Emerging CRU Services 262.2.3.1 Video Streaming and Gaming 262.2.3.2 Parking Reservations and Payment 262.3 Technical Components 272.4 Practicalities 282.4.1 Profile and SIM Card Provisioning 282.4.2 Routing Strategy 282.4.3 Roaming and Inter-operator Cooperation 292.4.4 Possible Business Model Evolution 292.4.4.1 OTA Software Updates 302.4.4.2 CAD Services and Related Automation Levels 312.5 Business Market Opportunities for V2X 342.5.1 CAD Business Model Enabled by 5G 342.5.1.1 Passive Infrastructure Sharing 372.5.1.2 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Excluding Spectrum Sharing 372.5.1.3 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Including Spectrum Sharing 372.5.2 Security Provision 382.5.2.1 The PKI Workflow 382.5.2.2 Enrollment of an ITS Station 392.5.2.3 Use of Authorizations Tokens 402.5.2.4 The Cost Hypothesis 402.5.3 OTA Software Updates 412.6 Business Model Analysis of 5G V2X Technical Components 442.6.1 Positioning 452.6.2 V2X Radio Design 462.6.2.1 Predictor Antenna 462.6.2.2 Beam-Forming 462.6.2.3 Efficiency 492.6.2.4 Reliability 492.6.2.5 Sidelink Out of Coverage 492.6.2.6 Sidelink in Coverage 492.6.3 Network Procedures 492.6.3.1 Local Standalone Network Procedures 512.6.3.2 Network Service Relationship Enhancement 512.6.3.3 Multi-Operator Solutions for V2X Communications 532.6.3.4 Network Orchestration and Management 532.6.4 End-to-End Security 542.6.5 Edge Computing Enhancements 552.6.6 Summary 582.7 Conclusions 58References 603 Standardization and Regulation 633.1 Standardization Process Overview 643.1.1 General Aspects 643.1.2 Standardization and Regulation Bodies Relevant to ITS Specifications 643.1.2.1 International Telecommunication Union 653.1.2.2 Regional Standards Developing Organizations 663.1.2.3 3GPP, IEEE, and SAE 673.1.2.4 5G PPP and EATA 673.1.2.5 5GAA 683.1.3 3GPP Structure and Standardization Process 693.2 Regulatory Aspects and Spectrum Allocation 703.2.1 C-V2X Policy and Regulations in Europe 713.2.2 Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocation for V2X Communications 713.2.2.1 Spectrum Allocation for IMT Systems and 3GPP Technologies 713.2.2.2 Dedicated Spectrum for ITS Applications 723.2.2.3 Worldwide Spectrum Harmonization 733.3 Standardization of V2X Communication Technology Solutions 733.3.1 A Brief History of V2X Communication 743.3.2 Overview of DSRC/C-V2X Specifications Around the Globe 753.3.2.1 Europe 753.3.2.2 The Americas 763.3.2.3 Asia 773.3.3 C-V2X Standardization in 3GPP: Toward and Within 5G 793.3.3.1 C-V2X in 4G 803.3.3.2 C-V2X Supported by 5G 823.3.3.3 Future Plans 833.4 Application Aspects 843.4.1 EU Standardization 863.4.2 US Standardization 873.5 Summary 87References 884 Spectrum and Channel Modeling 914.1 Spectrum and Regulations for V2X Communications 914.1.1 Spectrum Bands in Europe 924.1.1.1 ITS Spectrum at 5.9 GHz 924.1.1.2 5.8 GHz Frequency for Toll Collection 934.1.1.3 60 GHz ITS Band 934.1.1.4 IMT Bands in Europe 934.1.2 Spectrum Bands in Other Regions 944.1.2.1 United States 944.1.2.2 China 954.1.2.3 Other Regions of the World 964.1.3 Spectrum Auctions Worldwide 964.1.3.1 Europe 964.1.3.2 United States 1044.1.3.3 Asia 1054.1.3.4 Summary of Auctions and Cost Comparison Worldwide 1084.1.4 Spectrum Harmonization Worldwide 1114.1.4.1 Europe and Digital Single Market 1114.1.4.2 World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 1114.1.5 Summary 1124.2 Channel Modeling 1134.2.1 Propagation Environments 1144.2.1.1 Link Types 1144.2.1.2 Environments 1144.2.2 Channel-Modeling Framework and Gap Analysis 1164.2.3 Path-Loss Models 1164.2.3.1 Path-Loss for V2V LOS Links 1164.2.3.2 Shadow-Fading Models 1214.2.3.3 Fast-Fading Parameters 1224.2.3.4 Summary 1234.2.4 Recent V2X Channel Measurements and Models 1244.2.4.1 V2V Measurements in cmWave and mmWave 1244.2.4.2 mmWave V2V (Sidelink) Channel Modeling 1244.2.4.3 Multi-Link Shadowing Extensions 1324.2.5 Summary 134References 1355 V2X Radio Interface 1375.1 Beamforming Techniques for V2X Communication in the mm-Wave Spectrum 1385.1.1 Beam Refinement for Mobile Multi-User Scenarios 1395.1.1.1 Algorithm Description 1405.1.1.2 Illustrative Performance Results 1405.1.2 Beamformed Multicasting 1435.1.3 Beam-Based Broadcasting 1475.2 PHY and MAC Layer Extensions 1525.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1525.2.1.1 The Importance and Challenges of Channel State Information Acquisition in MU-MIMO Systems 1525.2.1.2 Interplay Between CSIR Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1535.2.1.3 Novel Approaches to Near-Optimal MU-MIMO Linear Receiver Design and the Impact of CSIR Errors 1565.2.1.4 Performance Modeling and Numerical Results in Multi-Antenna Cellular Vehicle Scenarios 1575.2.2 Reference Signal Design 1595.2.2.1 Challenges to CSI Acquisition in V2V Sidelink Communication 1595.2.2.2 Reference Signal Design for V2V Sidelink 1605.2.2.3 Performance Evaluation 1635.2.3 Synchronization 1645.2.4 Scheduling and Power Control 1685.3 Technology Features Enabled by Vehicular Sidelink 1725.3.1 UE Cooperation for Enhancing Reliability 1735.3.1.1 Communication Scenario 1735.3.1.2 Reliability Analysis – Channels with Equal Power 1745.3.1.3 Evaluation 1765.3.1.4 System Design Aspects 1785.3.2 Full Duplex 1815.3.2.1 Advantages of Full-Duplex Radio for C-V2X 1825.4 Summary 184References 1856 Network Enhancements 1916.1 Network Slicing 1926.1.1 Network Slicing and 3GPP 1926.1.2 Network Slicing and V2X 1946.2 Role of SDN and NFV in V2X 1966.3 Cloudified Architecture 1996.4 Local End-to-End Path 2006.5 Multi-Operator Support 2026.6 Summary 205References 2057 Enhancements to Support V2X Application Adaptations 2077.1 Background 2087.2 Enhanced Application-Network Interaction for Handling V2X Use Cases 2107.2.1 C-V2X Connectivity Negotiation 2107.2.2 Use-Case-Aware Multi-RAT Multi-Link Connectivity 2127.2.3 Location-Aware Scheduling 2147.3 Redundant Scheduler for Sidelink and Uu 2157.3.1 Application or Facilities Layer 2167.3.2 Transport Level 2197.3.3 RRC Level 2207.4 Summary 221References 2218 Radio-Based Positioning and Video-Based Positioning 2238.1 Radio-Based Positioning 2258.1.1 Use Cases and Requirements 2258.1.2 Radio-Based Positioning in New Radio Release 16 2268.1.3 Radio-Based Positioning Beyond Release 16 2288.1.3.1 The mmWave Channel 2288.1.3.2 Signal Design 2298.1.3.3 The Measurement Process 2308.1.3.4 Localization, Mapping, and Tracking 2318.1.4 Technology Component Complementation 2338.1.5 Limitations of Radio-Based Positioning 2358.1.6 Summary 2368.2 Video-Based Positioning 2378.2.1 Vehicle Positioning System Setup 2378.2.2 Multi-Camera Calibration 2398.2.3 Vehicle Detection 2408.2.4 Vehicle Tracking 2418.2.5 Vehicle Localization 2418.2.6 Accuracy Evaluation 2428.2.7 Summary 2458.3 Conclusions 246References 2469 Security and Privacy 2519.1 V2N Security 2529.1.1 Security Challenges 2539.1.2 Isolation Challenges 2549.1.2.1 System Isolation (Between ECUs) 2549.1.2.2 Network Isolation (Between Network Slices) 2549.1.3 Software-Defined Vehicular Networking Security 2559.1.3.1 Principles and Architecture 2559.1.3.2 Security Benefits and Threats 2559.2 V2V/V2I Security 2569.2.1 Privacy 2579.2.2 European Union Security Architecture 2589.2.3 US Security Architecture 2609.3 Alternative Approaches 2619.4 Conclusion 262References 26210 Status, Recommendations, and Outlook 26510.1 Future Prospects of C-V2X and the CAD Ecosystem 26510.1.1 Future Needs for R&D and Standardization in C-V2X 26610.1.2 Broader Aspects of CAD and CRU Services 26810.2 Recommendations to Stakeholders 27010.2.1 Mobile Network Operators 27110.2.1.1 Network-Sharing Alternatives 27110.2.1.2 New Business Models for Connected Vehicle Services 27110.2.1.3 Roaming and Inter-Operator Cooperation 27210.2.2 Original Equipment Manufacturers 27210.2.2.1 Connecting Off-Board Sensors 27210.2.2.2 Vehicle Processing Platforms Supported by Networks 27310.2.2.3 Automotive Standardization 27410.2.3 Regulators 27410.2.3.1 Deployment, Coverage, and Road Infrastructure 27410.2.3.2 Simplifying and Harmonizing Regulation 27510.2.3.3 Data Sharing and Monetization 27610.2.3.4 Spectrum Aspects 27610.2.4 Suppliers and Certification 27710.3 Outlook 278References 279Index 281

Select Guide Rating

MIKAEL FALLGREN, PHD, is Senior Researcher at Ericsson Research, Stockholm, Sweden. He was project manager of the 5GCAR project, while also serving as chairman of the 5G PPP Automotive Working Group and vice-chair of the 5G PPP Steering Board. He joined Ericsson as Experienced Researcher in 2011 with focus on wireless access networks. He has been involved in several other European Projects, including EARTH, METIS, METIS-II and 5GCroCo.MARKUS DILLINGER, Dipl.-Ing., is 5G R&D Head for vertical industry, Huawei Technologies, Munich, Germany. He was technical manager of the 5GCAR project. He joined Huawei as Head of Wireless Internet Technologies in 2010 where he led private and public R&D programs for car-to-car, ehealth and automation supporting 3GPP standardization and work for the vertical industry. He is currently member of 5G Health Association and member of 5GAA Executive Committee.TOKTAM MAHMOODI, PHD, is Reader in Wireless Networks, and Director of the Centre for Telecommunications Research, King’s College London, UK. She has worked in telecom industry and led number of research projects in the area of mobile and wireless networks, with applications in tele-health, mission-critical communication, industrial networking, and vehicular networks.TOMMY SVENSSON, PHD, is full Professor, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He is leading research on air interface and wireless networking for access, backhaul/ fronthaul in mobile communications. He was deeply involved in European research towards 4G and 5G, and currently towards 6G. He has also experience from Ericsson AB on core-, radio access-, and microwave networks.

• List of Contributors xiiiForewords xviiPreface xxvList of Abbreviations xxix1 Introduction 11.1 Background and Motivation for C-V2X 21.1.1 Intelligent Transport Systems 21.1.2 Connected Automated Driving 31.1.3 Connected Road User Services 41.2 Toward a Joint Telecom and Automotive Roadmap for CAD 41.2.1 Telecom’s Ambitions for Connected Driving 41.2.2 Automotive’s Ambitions for Automated Driving 61.2.3 Joint Roadmap for CAD 71.3 Communication Technologies for CAD 81.3.1 Standardization of IEEE V2X 101.3.2 Standardization and Regulation Aspects of C-V2X 121.3.2.1 Available C-V2X Releases and Regulations 121.3.2.2 Future Requirements for C-V2X Releases and Regulations 131.4 Structure of this Book 14References 182 Business Models 212.1 Current Market Analysis 222.2 Services Definition for CAD and CRU 232.2.1 Existing CAD and CRU Services 242.2.1.1 Emergency Call 242.2.1.2 Remote Diagnostics 242.2.1.3 Car Sharing 252.2.1.4 OTA Software Updates 252.2.1.5 Predictive Maintenance 252.2.1.6 Real-Time Road Traffic Management and Vehicle Guidance 252.2.2 Emerging CAD Services 252.2.2.1 Perception by Wireless Connectivity and Sensor Sharing 262.2.2.2 High-Definition Maps 262.2.3 Emerging CRU Services 262.2.3.1 Video Streaming and Gaming 262.2.3.2 Parking Reservations and Payment 262.3 Technical Components 272.4 Practicalities 282.4.1 Profile and SIM Card Provisioning 282.4.2 Routing Strategy 282.4.3 Roaming and Inter-operator Cooperation 292.4.4 Possible Business Model Evolution 292.4.4.1 OTA Software Updates 302.4.4.2 CAD Services and Related Automation Levels 312.5 Business Market Opportunities for V2X 342.5.1 CAD Business Model Enabled by 5G 342.5.1.1 Passive Infrastructure Sharing 372.5.1.2 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Excluding Spectrum Sharing 372.5.1.3 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Including Spectrum Sharing 372.5.2 Security Provision 382.5.2.1 The PKI Workflow 382.5.2.2 Enrollment of an ITS Station 392.5.2.3 Use of Authorizations Tokens 402.5.2.4 The Cost Hypothesis 402.5.3 OTA Software Updates 412.6 Business Model Analysis of 5G V2X Technical Components 442.6.1 Positioning 452.6.2 V2X Radio Design 462.6.2.1 Predictor Antenna 462.6.2.2 Beam-Forming 462.6.2.3 Efficiency 492.6.2.4 Reliability 492.6.2.5 Sidelink Out of Coverage 492.6.2.6 Sidelink in Coverage 492.6.3 Network Procedures 492.6.3.1 Local Standalone Network Procedures 512.6.3.2 Network Service Relationship Enhancement 512.6.3.3 Multi-Operator Solutions for V2X Communications 532.6.3.4 Network Orchestration and Management 532.6.4 End-to-End Security 542.6.5 Edge Computing Enhancements 552.6.6 Summary 582.7 Conclusions 58References 603 Standardization and Regulation 633.1 Standardization Process Overview 643.1.1 General Aspects 643.1.2 Standardization and Regulation Bodies Relevant to ITS Specifications 643.1.2.1 International Telecommunication Union 653.1.2.2 Regional Standards Developing Organizations 663.1.2.3 3GPP, IEEE, and SAE 673.1.2.4 5G PPP and EATA 673.1.2.5 5GAA 683.1.3 3GPP Structure and Standardization Process 693.2 Regulatory Aspects and Spectrum Allocation 703.2.1 C-V2X Policy and Regulations in Europe 713.2.2 Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocation for V2X Communications 713.2.2.1 Spectrum Allocation for IMT Systems and 3GPP Technologies 713.2.2.2 Dedicated Spectrum for ITS Applications 723.2.2.3 Worldwide Spectrum Harmonization 733.3 Standardization of V2X Communication Technology Solutions 733.3.1 A Brief History of V2X Communication 743.3.2 Overview of DSRC/C-V2X Specifications Around the Globe 753.3.2.1 Europe 753.3.2.2 The Americas 763.3.2.3 Asia 773.3.3 C-V2X Standardization in 3GPP: Toward and Within 5G 793.3.3.1 C-V2X in 4G 803.3.3.2 C-V2X Supported by 5G 823.3.3.3 Future Plans 833.4 Application Aspects 843.4.1 EU Standardization 863.4.2 US Standardization 873.5 Summary 87References 884 Spectrum and Channel Modeling 914.1 Spectrum and Regulations for V2X Communications 914.1.1 Spectrum Bands in Europe 924.1.1.1 ITS Spectrum at 5.9 GHz 924.1.1.2 5.8 GHz Frequency for Toll Collection 934.1.1.3 60 GHz ITS Band 934.1.1.4 IMT Bands in Europe 934.1.2 Spectrum Bands in Other Regions 944.1.2.1 United States 944.1.2.2 China 954.1.2.3 Other Regions of the World 964.1.3 Spectrum Auctions Worldwide 964.1.3.1 Europe 964.1.3.2 United States 1044.1.3.3 Asia 1054.1.3.4 Summary of Auctions and Cost Comparison Worldwide 1084.1.4 Spectrum Harmonization Worldwide 1114.1.4.1 Europe and Digital Single Market 1114.1.4.2 World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 1114.1.5 Summary 1124.2 Channel Modeling 1134.2.1 Propagation Environments 1144.2.1.1 Link Types 1144.2.1.2 Environments 1144.2.2 Channel-Modeling Framework and Gap Analysis 1164.2.3 Path-Loss Models 1164.2.3.1 Path-Loss for V2V LOS Links 1164.2.3.2 Shadow-Fading Models 1214.2.3.3 Fast-Fading Parameters 1224.2.3.4 Summary 1234.2.4 Recent V2X Channel Measurements and Models 1244.2.4.1 V2V Measurements in cmWave and mmWave 1244.2.4.2 mmWave V2V (Sidelink) Channel Modeling 1244.2.4.3 Multi-Link Shadowing Extensions 1324.2.5 Summary 134References 1355 V2X Radio Interface 1375.1 Beamforming Techniques for V2X Communication in the mm-Wave Spectrum 1385.1.1 Beam Refinement for Mobile Multi-User Scenarios 1395.1.1.1 Algorithm Description 1405.1.1.2 Illustrative Performance Results 1405.1.2 Beamformed Multicasting 1435.1.3 Beam-Based Broadcasting 1475.2 PHY and MAC Layer Extensions 1525.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1525.2.1.1 The Importance and Challenges of Channel State Information Acquisition in MU-MIMO Systems 1525.2.1.2 Interplay Between CSIR Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1535.2.1.3 Novel Approaches to Near-Optimal MU-MIMO Linear Receiver Design and the Impact of CSIR Errors 1565.2.1.4 Performance Modeling and Numerical Results in Multi-Antenna Cellular Vehicle Scenarios 1575.2.2 Reference Signal Design 1595.2.2.1 Challenges to CSI Acquisition in V2V Sidelink Communication 1595.2.2.2 Reference Signal Design for V2V Sidelink 1605.2.2.3 Performance Evaluation 1635.2.3 Synchronization 1645.2.4 Scheduling and Power Control 1685.3 Technology Features Enabled by Vehicular Sidelink 1725.3.1 UE Cooperation for Enhancing Reliability 1735.3.1.1 Communication Scenario 1735.3.1.2 Reliability Analysis – Channels with Equal Power 1745.3.1.3 Evaluation 1765.3.1.4 System Design Aspects 1785.3.2 Full Duplex 1815.3.2.1 Advantages of Full-Duplex Radio for C-V2X 1825.4 Summary 184References 1856 Network Enhancements 1916.1 Network Slicing 1926.1.1 Network Slicing and 3GPP 1926.1.2 Network Slicing and V2X 1946.2 Role of SDN and NFV in V2X 1966.3 Cloudified Architecture 1996.4 Local End-to-End Path 2006.5 Multi-Operator Support 2026.6 Summary 205References 2057 Enhancements to Support V2X Application Adaptations 2077.1 Background 2087.2 Enhanced Application-Network Interaction for Handling V2X Use Cases 2107.2.1 C-V2X Connectivity Negotiation 2107.2.2 Use-Case-Aware Multi-RAT Multi-Link Connectivity 2127.2.3 Location-Aware Scheduling 2147.3 Redundant Scheduler for Sidelink and Uu 2157.3.1 Application or Facilities Layer 2167.3.2 Transport Level 2197.3.3 RRC Level 2207.4 Summary 221References 2218 Radio-Based Positioning and Video-Based Positioning 2238.1 Radio-Based Positioning 2258.1.1 Use Cases and Requirements 2258.1.2 Radio-Based Positioning in New Radio Release 16 2268.1.3 Radio-Based Positioning Beyond Release 16 2288.1.3.1 The mmWave Channel 2288.1.3.2 Signal Design 2298.1.3.3 The Measurement Process 2308.1.3.4 Localization, Mapping, and Tracking 2318.1.4 Technology Component Complementation 2338.1.5 Limitations of Radio-Based Positioning 2358.1.6 Summary 2368.2 Video-Based Positioning 2378.2.1 Vehicle Positioning System Setup 2378.2.2 Multi-Camera Calibration 2398.2.3 Vehicle Detection 2408.2.4 Vehicle Tracking 2418.2.5 Vehicle Localization 2418.2.6 Accuracy Evaluation 2428.2.7 Summary 2458.3 Conclusions 246References 2469 Security and Privacy 2519.1 V2N Security 2529.1.1 Security Challenges 2539.1.2 Isolation Challenges 2549.1.2.1 System Isolation (Between ECUs) 2549.1.2.2 Network Isolation (Between Network Slices) 2549.1.3 Software-Defined Vehicular Networking Security 2559.1.3.1 Principles and Architecture 2559.1.3.2 Security Benefits and Threats 2559.2 V2V/V2I Security 2569.2.1 Privacy 2579.2.2 European Union Security Architecture 2589.2.3 US Security Architecture 2609.3 Alternative Approaches 2619.4 Conclusion 262References 26210 Status, Recommendations, and Outlook 26510.1 Future Prospects of C-V2X and the CAD Ecosystem 26510.1.1 Future Needs for R&D and Standardization in C-V2X 26610.1.2 Broader Aspects of CAD and CRU Services 26810.2 Recommendations to Stakeholders 27010.2.1 Mobile Network Operators 27110.2.1.1 Network-Sharing Alternatives 27110.2.1.2 New Business Models for Connected Vehicle Services 27110.2.1.3 Roaming and Inter-Operator Cooperation 27210.2.2 Original Equipment Manufacturers 27210.2.2.1 Connecting Off-Board Sensors 27210.2.2.2 Vehicle Processing Platforms Supported by Networks 27310.2.2.3 Automotive Standardization 27410.2.3 Regulators 27410.2.3.1 Deployment, Coverage, and Road Infrastructure 27410.2.3.2 Simplifying and Harmonizing Regulation 27510.2.3.3 Data Sharing and Monetization 27610.2.3.4 Spectrum Aspects 27610.2.4 Suppliers and Certification 27710.3 Outlook 278References 279Index 281

Select Guide Rating

MIKAEL FALLGREN, PHD, is Senior Researcher at Ericsson Research, Stockholm, Sweden. He was project manager of the 5GCAR project, while also serving as chairman of the 5G PPP Automotive Working Group and vice-chair of the 5G PPP Steering Board. He joined Ericsson as Experienced Researcher in 2011 with focus on wireless access networks. He has been involved in several other European Projects, including EARTH, METIS, METIS-II and 5GCroCo.MARKUS DILLINGER, Dipl.-Ing., is 5G R&D Head for vertical industry, Huawei Technologies, Munich, Germany. He was technical manager of the 5GCAR project. He joined Huawei as Head of Wireless Internet Technologies in 2010 where he led private and public R&D programs for car-to-car, ehealth and automation supporting 3GPP standardization and work for the vertical industry. He is currently member of 5G Health Association and member of 5GAA Executive Committee.TOKTAM MAHMOODI, PHD, is Reader in Wireless Networks, and Director of the Centre for Telecommunications Research, King’s College London, UK. She has worked in telecom industry and led number of research projects in the area of mobile and wireless networks, with applications in tele-health, mission-critical communication, industrial networking, and vehicular networks.TOMMY SVENSSON, PHD, is full Professor, Chalmers University of Technology, Gothenburg, Sweden. He is leading research on air interface and wireless networking for access, backhaul/ fronthaul in mobile communications. He was deeply involved in European research towards 4G and 5G, and currently towards 6G. He has also experience from Ericsson AB on core-, radio access-, and microwave networks.

• List of Contributors xiiiForewords xviiPreface xxvList of Abbreviations xxix1 Introduction 11.1 Background and Motivation for C-V2X 21.1.1 Intelligent Transport Systems 21.1.2 Connected Automated Driving 31.1.3 Connected Road User Services 41.2 Toward a Joint Telecom and Automotive Roadmap for CAD 41.2.1 Telecom’s Ambitions for Connected Driving 41.2.2 Automotive’s Ambitions for Automated Driving 61.2.3 Joint Roadmap for CAD 71.3 Communication Technologies for CAD 81.3.1 Standardization of IEEE V2X 101.3.2 Standardization and Regulation Aspects of C-V2X 121.3.2.1 Available C-V2X Releases and Regulations 121.3.2.2 Future Requirements for C-V2X Releases and Regulations 131.4 Structure of this Book 14References 182 Business Models 212.1 Current Market Analysis 222.2 Services Definition for CAD and CRU 232.2.1 Existing CAD and CRU Services 242.2.1.1 Emergency Call 242.2.1.2 Remote Diagnostics 242.2.1.3 Car Sharing 252.2.1.4 OTA Software Updates 252.2.1.5 Predictive Maintenance 252.2.1.6 Real-Time Road Traffic Management and Vehicle Guidance 252.2.2 Emerging CAD Services 252.2.2.1 Perception by Wireless Connectivity and Sensor Sharing 262.2.2.2 High-Definition Maps 262.2.3 Emerging CRU Services 262.2.3.1 Video Streaming and Gaming 262.2.3.2 Parking Reservations and Payment 262.3 Technical Components 272.4 Practicalities 282.4.1 Profile and SIM Card Provisioning 282.4.2 Routing Strategy 282.4.3 Roaming and Inter-operator Cooperation 292.4.4 Possible Business Model Evolution 292.4.4.1 OTA Software Updates 302.4.4.2 CAD Services and Related Automation Levels 312.5 Business Market Opportunities for V2X 342.5.1 CAD Business Model Enabled by 5G 342.5.1.1 Passive Infrastructure Sharing 372.5.1.2 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Excluding Spectrum Sharing 372.5.1.3 Active Infrastructure Sharing, Including Spectrum Sharing 372.5.2 Security Provision 382.5.2.1 The PKI Workflow 382.5.2.2 Enrollment of an ITS Station 392.5.2.3 Use of Authorizations Tokens 402.5.2.4 The Cost Hypothesis 402.5.3 OTA Software Updates 412.6 Business Model Analysis of 5G V2X Technical Components 442.6.1 Positioning 452.6.2 V2X Radio Design 462.6.2.1 Predictor Antenna 462.6.2.2 Beam-Forming 462.6.2.3 Efficiency 492.6.2.4 Reliability 492.6.2.5 Sidelink Out of Coverage 492.6.2.6 Sidelink in Coverage 492.6.3 Network Procedures 492.6.3.1 Local Standalone Network Procedures 512.6.3.2 Network Service Relationship Enhancement 512.6.3.3 Multi-Operator Solutions for V2X Communications 532.6.3.4 Network Orchestration and Management 532.6.4 End-to-End Security 542.6.5 Edge Computing Enhancements 552.6.6 Summary 582.7 Conclusions 58References 603 Standardization and Regulation 633.1 Standardization Process Overview 643.1.1 General Aspects 643.1.2 Standardization and Regulation Bodies Relevant to ITS Specifications 643.1.2.1 International Telecommunication Union 653.1.2.2 Regional Standards Developing Organizations 663.1.2.3 3GPP, IEEE, and SAE 673.1.2.4 5G PPP and EATA 673.1.2.5 5GAA 683.1.3 3GPP Structure and Standardization Process 693.2 Regulatory Aspects and Spectrum Allocation 703.2.1 C-V2X Policy and Regulations in Europe 713.2.2 Radio Frequency Spectrum Allocation for V2X Communications 713.2.2.1 Spectrum Allocation for IMT Systems and 3GPP Technologies 713.2.2.2 Dedicated Spectrum for ITS Applications 723.2.2.3 Worldwide Spectrum Harmonization 733.3 Standardization of V2X Communication Technology Solutions 733.3.1 A Brief History of V2X Communication 743.3.2 Overview of DSRC/C-V2X Specifications Around the Globe 753.3.2.1 Europe 753.3.2.2 The Americas 763.3.2.3 Asia 773.3.3 C-V2X Standardization in 3GPP: Toward and Within 5G 793.3.3.1 C-V2X in 4G 803.3.3.2 C-V2X Supported by 5G 823.3.3.3 Future Plans 833.4 Application Aspects 843.4.1 EU Standardization 863.4.2 US Standardization 873.5 Summary 87References 884 Spectrum and Channel Modeling 914.1 Spectrum and Regulations for V2X Communications 914.1.1 Spectrum Bands in Europe 924.1.1.1 ITS Spectrum at 5.9 GHz 924.1.1.2 5.8 GHz Frequency for Toll Collection 934.1.1.3 60 GHz ITS Band 934.1.1.4 IMT Bands in Europe 934.1.2 Spectrum Bands in Other Regions 944.1.2.1 United States 944.1.2.2 China 954.1.2.3 Other Regions of the World 964.1.3 Spectrum Auctions Worldwide 964.1.3.1 Europe 964.1.3.2 United States 1044.1.3.3 Asia 1054.1.3.4 Summary of Auctions and Cost Comparison Worldwide 1084.1.4 Spectrum Harmonization Worldwide 1114.1.4.1 Europe and Digital Single Market 1114.1.4.2 World Radiocommunication Conference 2019 1114.1.5 Summary 1124.2 Channel Modeling 1134.2.1 Propagation Environments 1144.2.1.1 Link Types 1144.2.1.2 Environments 1144.2.2 Channel-Modeling Framework and Gap Analysis 1164.2.3 Path-Loss Models 1164.2.3.1 Path-Loss for V2V LOS Links 1164.2.3.2 Shadow-Fading Models 1214.2.3.3 Fast-Fading Parameters 1224.2.3.4 Summary 1234.2.4 Recent V2X Channel Measurements and Models 1244.2.4.1 V2V Measurements in cmWave and mmWave 1244.2.4.2 mmWave V2V (Sidelink) Channel Modeling 1244.2.4.3 Multi-Link Shadowing Extensions 1324.2.5 Summary 134References 1355 V2X Radio Interface 1375.1 Beamforming Techniques for V2X Communication in the mm-Wave Spectrum 1385.1.1 Beam Refinement for Mobile Multi-User Scenarios 1395.1.1.1 Algorithm Description 1405.1.1.2 Illustrative Performance Results 1405.1.2 Beamformed Multicasting 1435.1.3 Beam-Based Broadcasting 1475.2 PHY and MAC Layer Extensions 1525.2.1 Channel State Information Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1525.2.1.1 The Importance and Challenges of Channel State Information Acquisition in MU-MIMO Systems 1525.2.1.2 Interplay Between CSIR Acquisition and MU-MIMO Receiver Design 1535.2.1.3 Novel Approaches to Near-Optimal MU-MIMO Linear Receiver Design and the Impact of CSIR Errors 1565.2.1.4 Performance Modeling and Numerical Results in Multi-Antenna Cellular Vehicle Scenarios 1575.2.2 Reference Signal Design 1595.2.2.1 Challenges to CSI Acquisition in V2V Sidelink Communication 1595.2.2.2 Reference Signal Design for V2V Sidelink 1605.2.2.3 Performance Evaluation 1635.2.3 Synchronization 1645.2.4 Scheduling and Power Control 1685.3 Technology Features Enabled by Vehicular Sidelink 1725.3.1 UE Cooperation for Enhancing Reliability 1735.3.1.1 Communication Scenario 1735.3.1.2 Reliability Analysis – Channels with Equal Power 1745.3.1.3 Evaluation 1765.3.1.4 System Design Aspects 1785.3.2 Full Duplex 1815.3.2.1 Advantages of Full-Duplex Radio for C-V2X 1825.4 Summary 184References 1856 Network Enhancements 1916.1 Network Slicing 1926.1.1 Network Slicing and 3GPP 1926.1.2 Network Slicing and V2X 1946.2 Role of SDN and NFV in V2X 1966.3 Cloudified Architecture 1996.4 Local End-to-End Path 2006.5 Multi-Operator Support 2026.6 Summary 205References 2057 Enhancements to Support V2X Application Adaptations 2077.1 Background 2087.2 Enhanced Application-Network Interaction for Handling V2X Use Cases 2107.2.1 C-V2X Connectivity Negotiation 2107.2.2 Use-Case-Aware Multi-RAT Multi-Link Connectivity 2127.2.3 Location-Aware Scheduling 2147.3 Redundant Scheduler for Sidelink and Uu 2157.3.1 Application or Facilities Layer 2167.3.2 Transport Level 2197.3.3 RRC Level 2207.4 Summary 221References 2218 Radio-Based Positioning and Video-Based Positioning 2238.1 Radio-Based Positioning 2258.1.1 Use Cases and Requirements 2258.1.2 Radio-Based Positioning in New Radio Release 16 2268.1.3 Radio-Based Positioning Beyond Release 16 2288.1.3.1 The mmWave Channel 2288.1.3.2 Signal Design 2298.1.3.3 The Measurement Process 2308.1.3.4 Localization, Mapping, and Tracking 2318.1.4 Technology Component Complementation 2338.1.5 Limitations of Radio-Based Positioning 2358.1.6 Summary 2368.2 Video-Based Positioning 2378.2.1 Vehicle Positioning System Setup 2378.2.2 Multi-Camera Calibration 2398.2.3 Vehicle Detection 2408.2.4 Vehicle Tracking 2418.2.5 Vehicle Localization 2418.2.6 Accuracy Evaluation 2428.2.7 Summary 2458.3 Conclusions 246References 2469 Security and Privacy 2519.1 V2N Security 2529.1.1 Security Challenges 2539.1.2 Isolation Challenges 2549.1.2.1 System Isolation (Between ECUs) 2549.1.2.2 Network Isolation (Between Network Slices) 2549.1.3 Software-Defined Vehicular Networking Security 2559.1.3.1 Principles and Architecture 2559.1.3.2 Security Benefits and Threats 2559.2 V2V/V2I Security 2569.2.1 Privacy 2579.2.2 European Union Security Architecture 2589.2.3 US Security Architecture 2609.3 Alternative Approaches 2619.4 Conclusion 262References 26210 Status, Recommendations, and Outlook 26510.1 Future Prospects of C-V2X and the CAD Ecosystem 26510.1.1 Future Needs for R&D and Standardization in C-V2X 26610.1.2 Broader Aspects of CAD and CRU Services 26810.2 Recommendations to Stakeholders 27010.2.1 Mobile Network Operators 27110.2.1.1 Network-Sharing Alternatives 27110.2.1.2 New Business Models for Connected Vehicle Services 27110.2.1.3 Roaming and Inter-Operator Cooperation 27210.2.2 Original Equipment Manufacturers 27210.2.2.1 Connecting Off-Board Sensors 27210.2.2.2 Vehicle Processing Platforms Supported by Networks 27310.2.2.3 Automotive Standardization 27410.2.3 Regulators 27410.2.3.1 Deployment, Coverage, and Road Infrastructure 27410.2.3.2 Simplifying and Harmonizing Regulation 27510.2.3.3 Data Sharing and Monetization 27610.2.3.4 Spectrum Aspects 27610.2.4 Suppliers and Certification 27710.3 Outlook 278References 279Index 281

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