Editors Yuen Yung Hui, is a Postdoctoral Research Fellow at the Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. Huan-Cheng Chang, is a Distinguished Research Fellow at the Institute of Atomic and Molecular Sciences, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan, Republic of China. Haifeng Dong, is a Professor at the University of Science and Technology Beijing, P.R. China. Xueji Zhang, is Professor and Dean in the School of Chemistry & Biological Engineering at the University of Science & Technology Beijing, P.R. China.

• List of Contributors xiiiSeries Preface xixPreface xxiPart I Basics of Carbon Nanomaterials 11 Introduction to Carbon Structures 3Meng-Chih Su and Yuen Yung Hui1.1 Carbon Age 31.2 Classification 41.3 Fullerene 41.4 Carbon Nanotubes 61.4.1 Structure 61.4.2 Electronics 81.5 Graphene 101.5.1 Structure 101.5.2 Electronics 111.6 Nanodiamonds and Carbon Dots 12Acknowledgment 13References 132 Using Polymers to Enhance the Carbon Nanomaterial Biointerface 15Goutam Pramanik, Jitka Neburkova, Vaclav Vanek, Mona Jani, Marek Kindermann, and Petr Cigler2.1 Introduction 152.2 Colloidal Stability of CNMs 162.3 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers 182.3.1 Noncovalent Approaches 182.3.2 Covalent Approaches 182.4 Influence of Polymers on the Spectral Properties of CNMs 192.5 Functionalizing CNMs with Antifouling Polymers for Bioapplications 222.6 Functionalization of CNMs with Stimuli‐Responsive Polymers 262.6.1 Carbon Nanoparticles with Thermoresponsive Polymers 272.6.2 pH‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 272.6.3 Redox‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 282.6.4 Multi‐Responsive Carbon Nanoparticles 282.7 Functionalization of CNMs with Polymers for Delivery of Nucleic Acids 292.8 Outlook 32Acknowledgments 34References 343 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Bioimaging and Phototherapy 43Haifeng Dong and Yu Cao3.1 Introduction 433.2 Surface Functionalization of Carbon Nanomaterials 433.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Optical Imaging 453.3.1 Intrinsic Fluorescence of Carbon Nanomaterials 453.3.2 Imaging Utilizing Intrinsic Fluorescence Features of Carbon Nanomaterials 463.3.3 Imaging with Fluorescently Labeled Carbon Nanomaterials 513.4 Carbon Nanomaterials for Phototherapies of Cancer 513.4.1 Photothermal Therapy 523.4.2 Photodynamic Therapy 533.5 Conclusions and Outlook 56References 56Part II Bioimaging and Bioanalysis 634 High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Fluorescence Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials for Preclinical and Clinical Applications 65John Czerski and Susanta K. Sarkar4.1 Introduction 654.2 Survey of Carbon Nanomaterials 664.2.1 Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 664.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes 664.2.3 Graphene 694.2.4 Carbon Nanodots 694.3 Fluorescent Properties of FNDs and SWCNTs 694.3.1 FNDs 694.3.2 SWCNTs 714.4 Survey of High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 714.4.1 General Considerations for Eventual Human Use 714.4.2 General Considerations for Achieving High‐Resolution and High‐Contrast Imaging 724.4.2.1 Photoacoustic Imaging (PAI) 724.4.2.2 X‐ray Computed Tomographic (CT) Imaging 734.4.2.3 Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) 734.4.2.4 Image Alignment and Drift Correction 744.4.3 Preclinical and Clinical Optical Imaging with CNMs 744.4.4 Optical Imaging in the Short‐Wavelength Window (~650–950 nm) 744.4.4.1 Optical Imaging beyond the Diffraction Limit 754.4.4.2 Selective Modulation of Emission 754.4.4.3 Time‐Gated Fluorescence Lifetime Imaging 774.4.5 Optical Imaging in the Long‐Wavelength Window (~950–1400 nm) 774.5 Conclusions 78References 795 Carbon Nanomaterials for Deep‐Tissue Imaging in the NIR Spectral Window 87Stefania Lettieri and Silvia Giordani5.1 Introduction 875.1.1 Transparent Optical Windows in Biological Tissue 875.1.2 Near‐Infrared Imaging Materials 885.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for NIR Imaging 895.2.1 Biocompatibility of CNMs 905.2.2 Fluorescence of CNMs Probes 915.2.3 Covalent and Noncovalent Functionalization 915.2.4 CNMs as Bioimaging Platforms 915.2.4.1 Fullerene 915.2.4.2 Carbon Nanotubes 935.2.4.3 Graphene Derivatives 995.2.4.4 Carbon Dots 1005.2.4.5 Carbon Nano-onions 1025.2.4.6 Nanodiamonds 1045.3 Conclusions and Outlook 105Acknowledgments 106References 1066 Tracking Photoluminescent Carbon Nanomaterials in Biological Systems 115Simon Haziza, Laurent Cognet, and François TreussartChapter Summary 1156.1 Introduction 1156.2 Tracking Cells in Organisms with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 1166.3 Monitoring Inter and Intra Cellular Dynamics with Fluorescent Nanodiamonds 1206.4 Single‐Walled Carbon Nanotubes: A Near‐Infrared Optical Probe of the Nanoscale Extracellular Space in Live Brain Tissue 1276.5 Conclusion 131References 1327 Photoacoustic Imaging with Carbon Nanomaterials 139Seunghyun Lee, Donghyun Lee, and Chulhong KimChapter Summary 1397.1 Introduction 1397.2 Photoacoustic Imaging Systems 1407.2.1 Photoacoustic Microscopy 1417.2.2 Photoacoustic Computed Tomography 1427.3 Photoacoustic Application of Carbon Nanomaterials 1457.3.1 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Imaging Contrast Agents 1467.3.2 Carbon Nanomaterials for Multimodal Photoacoustic Imaging 1497.3.3 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photoacoustic Image‐Guided Therapy 1567.3.4 Conclusions and Future Perspective 160Acknowledgments 161References 1628 Carbon Nanomaterial Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 167Tran T. Tung, Kumud M. Tripathi, TaeYoung Kim, Melinda Krebsz, Tibor Pasinszki, and Dusan Losic8.1 Introduction 1678.2 Detection of VOC by Using Gas/Vapor Sensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 1698.2.1 Carbon Nanodots (CNDs) and Graphene Quantum Dots (GQDs) for VOC Sensors 1718.2.2 Carbon Nanotubes (CNTs) for VOC Sensors 1738.2.3 Graphene for VOC Sensors 1768.3 Detection of Biomarkers Using Biosensors for Cancer and Disease Diagnosis 1798.3.1 Carbon Nanodot‐ and Graphene Quantum Dot‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarkers Detection 1798.3.2 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 1828.3.3 Carbon Nanotube‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 1868.3.4 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Cancer Biomarker Detection 1888.3.5 Graphene‐Based Biosensors for Disease Biomarker Detection 1908.4 Conclusions and Perspectives 192Acknowledgments 193References 1939 Recent Advances in Carbon Dots for Bioanalysis and the Future Perspectives 203Jessica Fung Yee Fong, Yann Huey Ng, and Sing Muk Ng9.1 Introduction 2039.2 Fundamentals of CDs 2059.2.1 Synthesis Approaches 2059.2.2 Optical Properties 2069.2.2.1 Absorbance and Photoluminescence (PL) 2069.2.2.2 Quantum Yield (QY) 2109.2.2.3 Photoluminescence Origins 2109.2.2.4 Up‐Conversion Photoluminescence (UCPL) 2119.2.2.5 Phosphorescence 2129.2.3 Physical and Chemical Properties 2139.2.4 Biosafety Assessments 2149.3 Bioengineering of CDs for Bioanalysis 2169.3.1 Functionalization Mechanism and Strategies 2169.3.1.1 Chemical Functionalization 2169.3.1.2 Doping 2179.3.1.3 Coupling with Gold Nanoparticles 2179.3.1.4 Fabrication onto Solid Polymeric Matrices 2189.3.2 Biomolecules Grafted on CDs as Sensing Receptors 2189.3.2.1 Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA) 2189.3.2.2 Aptamers 2199.3.2.3 Proteins/Peptides 2199.3.2.4 Biopolymers 2209.4 Bioanalysis Applications of CDs 2219.4.1 Biosensing Mechanism/Transduction Schemes 2219.4.1.1 Fluorescence 2229.4.1.2 Chemiluminescence (CL) 2239.4.1.3 Electrochemiluminescence (ECL) 2249.4.1.4 Electrochemical 2249.4.2 Uses of CDs in Bioanalysis 2259.4.2.1 Heavy Metals/Elements 2259.4.2.2 Reactive Oxygen/Nitrogen Species (ROS/RNS) 2269.4.2.3 Oligonucleotides 2279.4.2.4 Small Molecules/Pharmaceutical Drugs/Natural Compounds 2289.4.2.5 Proteins 2309.4.2.6 Enzyme Activities and Inhibitor Screening 2319.4.2.7 pH 2329.4.2.8 Temperature 2349.4.3 Solid‐State Sensing for Point‐of‐Care Diagnostic Kits 2349.4.4 Bioimaging/Real‐Time Monitoring 2369.4.5 Theranostics 2389.5 Future Perspectives 2409.5.1 Better Understanding of PL Mechanisms 2409.5.2 Establishment of Systematic Synthesis Protocol 2419.5.3 QY Improvement and Spectral Expansion to Longer Wavelength 2419.5.4 Sensitivity Improvement for Solid‐State Sensing 2429.6 Conclusions 242References 242Part III Therapy 26510 Functionalized Carbon Nanomaterials for Drug Delivery 267Naoki Komatsu 26710.1 Introduction 26710.2 Direct Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Photosensitizer for Cancer Phototherapy 26810.2.1 Fabrication of Graphene‐Based Composite with Chlorin e6 (G‐Ce6) 26810.2.2 Characterization of G‐Ce6 26810.2.3 In vitro Evaluation of G‐Ce6 for Cancer Phototherapy 27210.3 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 27410.3.1 Synthesis of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug and Targeting Peptide 27410.3.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond and the Derivatives 27610.3.3 In vitro Evaluation of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Platinum‐Based Drug for Cancer Chemotherapy 27910.4 Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with DNA for Gene Therapy 28010.4.1 Synthesis and Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Conjugated with Basic Polypeptides 28010.4.2 Characterization of Polyglycerol‐Functionalized Nanodiamond Hybridized with Plasmid DNA 28010.5 Conclusions and Perspectives 283Acknowledgments 285References 28511 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Nanocomposites for Cancer Diagnosis and Therapy 289Ayuob Aghanejad, Parinaz Abdollahiyan, Jaleh Barar, and Yadollah Omidi11.1 Introduction 28911.2 Multifunctional Graphene‐Based Composites for the Diagnosis/Therapy of Cancer 29111.2.1 Metal‐Graphene Nanocomposites 29211.2.1.1 Gold‐Graphene Composites 29211.2.1.2 Magnetic Graphene Nanocomposites 29411.2.2 Polymeric Graphene Nanocomposites 29511.2.3 Graphene Biomaterials for MR Imaging 29911.3 Multimodal Graphene‐Based Composites for the Radiotherapy of Cancer 30011.4 Graphene‐Based Nanobiomaterials for Cancer Diagnosis 30211.5 Conclusion 302Acknowledgment 303References 30312 Carbon Nanomaterials for Photothermal Therapies 309Jiantao Yu, Lingyan Yang, Junyan Yan, Wen‐Cheng Wang, Yi‐Chun Chen, Hung‐Hsiang Chen, and Chia‐Hua Lin12.1 Introduction 30912.2 GO for PTT 31112.2.1 PTT‐Related Physical and Chemical Properties of GO 31112.2.2 GO for in vitro PTT 31212.2.3 GO for in vivo PTT 31412.3 CNTs and CNHs for PTT 31412.3.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CNTs and CNHs Related to PTT 31512.3.2 CNTs and CNHs for in vitro PTT 31612.3.3 CNTs and CNHs for in vivo PTT 31612.4 CDs and GDs for PTT 31812.4.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of CDs and GDs Related to PTT 31812.4.2 CDs and GDs for in vitro PTT 31912.4.3 CDs and GDs for in vivo PTT 31912.5 Fullerenes for PTT 32012.5.1 Physical and Chemical Properties of Fullerenes Related to PTT 32012.5.2 Fullerenes for in vitro PTT 32012.5.3 Fullerenes for in vivo PTT 32112.6 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 32112.6.1 GO‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 32212.6.2 CNT‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 32312.6.3 CD‐ and GD‐Based Nanocomposites for PTT 32312.7 Carbon Nanomaterial‐Based Combined Therapy with PTT 32412.7.1 Chemotherapy 32412.7.2 RT 32412.7.3 Photodynamic Therapy (PDT) 32512.7.4 Gene Therapy 32512.7.5 Immune Therapy 32712.7.6 Theranostic Applications 32812.8 Conclusions and Perspectives 329References 330Index 341