Edited by Sarah Ellingham, Forensic Coordinator, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, Switzerland. Joe Adserias Garriga, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst University, Pennsylvania, USA. Sara C. Zapico, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey ­Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA, and Research Collaborator, Department of Anthropology, National ­Museum of ­Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Douglas H. Ubelaker, Curator and Senior Scientist, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of ­Natural ­History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.

• About the Editors xiiiList of Contributors xvPreface xxviiSeries Preface xxix1 History of the Study of Burnt Remains 1Douglas H. Ubelaker and Austin A. Shamlou1.1 Early Developments Prior to 1980 11.2 Post-1980 Advanced Experimentation and Casework 31.3 The 1990s: New Methods and Case Applications 41.4 Summary and Conclusions 6References 7Part 1 Search and Recovery of Burnt Human Remains from the Fire Scene2 Fire Environments and Characteristic Burn Patterns of Human Remains from Four Common Types of Fatal Fire Scenes 13Elayne Pope2.1 Introduction 132.2 Experimental Research of Fire and Human Bodies 142.3 How the Human Body Burns 142.4 Variables of Fire Environments 172.5 Structure Fires 182.6 Burning Directly on the Floor 192.7 The Body on Furnishings: Couches and Chairs 192.8 The Body on Furnishings: Bed 212.9 Loss of the Floor 222.10 Collapse into a Lower Level 232.11 Vehicle Fires 242.12 Driver and Passenger Space 252.13 Rear Passenger Space with Bench Seats 262.14 Trunk Environment 262.15 Confined Space Fires 282.16 Outdoor Space Fires 292.17 Ignitable Liquids on Bodies 292.18 Burning Outdoor Debris Piles 302.19 Post-Fire Fragmentation of Burnt Bones 312.20 Suppression 322.21 Recovery and Transport from Fatal Fire Scenes 332.22 Conclusions 35References 353 Recovery and Interpretation of Human Remains from Fatal Fire Scenes 37Alexandra R. Klales; Allison Nesbitt; Dennis C. Dirkmaat and Luis L. Cabo3.1 Introduction 373.2 Summary of Fires in the USA 393.3 Statement of the Problem 393.4 Current Fatal Fire Victim Recovery Protocols 423.5 NIJ Protocols 433.6 Special Circumstances 513.7 Conclusions 55References 554 Considerations to Maximize Recovery of Post-mortem Dental Information to Facilitate Identification of Severely Incinerated Human Remains 59John Berketa and Denice Higgins4.1 Introduction 594.2 Identification 594.3 Documentation 604.4 Preparation 614.5 Prepacked Scene Equipment 614.6 Scene Arrival 634.7 Safety Issues 634.8 Overall Scene Evaluation 654.9 Considerations Regarding DNA Evidence 664.10 Considerations Regarding Dental Evidence 674.11 Moving the Victim 694.12 Conclusions 71References 71Part 2 Examination and Identification of Burnt Human Remains5 Methods for Analyzing Burnt Human Remains 75Amanda N. Williams5.1 Anthropological Methods for Classifying Burnt Remains 765.2 Medicolegal Classification Methods 785.3 Need for New Model within the Forensic Sciences 795.4 A New Classification System 805.5 Best Practices in Applying this New Model 835.6 Case Study #1 835.7 Case Study #2 865.8 Case Study #3 885.9 Case Study #4 905.10 Case Study #5 925.11 Broader Implications 955.12 Conclusions 95Acknowledgments 96References 966 Burnt Human Remains and Forensic Medicine 99Sarah Ellingham; Joe Adserias-Garriga and Peter Ellis6.1 Fire Death Statistics 996.2 Statistics of Manner of Fire-Related Deaths 1006.2.1 Prevalence of Self-Immolation 1006.2.2 Prevalence of Criminal Immolation 1016.3 Fire Damage to the Body 1026.4 Classification of the Degree of Fire Damage 1036.5 Medicolegal Determination of Cause of Death 1056.6 Medicolegal Determination of Manner of Death 1066.7 The Use of Post-Mortem Imaging for the Analysis of Burn Victims 1086.8 Conclusion 110Acknowledgments 110References 1107 Skeletal Alteration of Burnt Remains through Fire Exposure 113Joe Adserias-Garriga7.1 Assessment of the Severity of the Thermal Damage in the Forensic Context 1147.2 Soft Tissue Alterations by Fire Exposure 1157.3 Bone Alteration by Fire Exposure 1167.4 Teeth Alteration by Fire Exposure 1207.5 Signature Changes in Skeletal Elements after Cremation 1227.6 Conclusions 129References 1308 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation from Burnt Remains 133Tim J.U. Thompson8.1 Why Does Burning Affect Methods of Identification? 1348.2 How Does the Context of Burning Impede the Creation of Biological Profiles? 1358.3 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation of Burnt Remains 1378.3.1 Morphological Methods 1378.3.2 Metric Methods 1398.3.3 Other Approaches to Biological Profile Estimation 1408.4 Conclusions 142References 1429 Victim Identification: The Role of Incinerated Dental Materials 147Peter J. Bush; Mary A. Bush and Raymond Miller9.1 Introduction 1479.2 Microstructural Changes in Teeth after Incineration 1489.3 Structural Changes Due to Restorative Procedures 1499.4 Case Reports 1519.4.1 Case Report 1: Airline Crash 1519.4.2 Case Report 2: Double Homicide 1619.5 Conclusions 165References 16610 Techniques for the Differentiation of Blunt Force Sharp Force and Gunshot Traumas from Heat Fractures in Burnt Remains 167Hanna Friedlander; Megan Moore and Pamela Mayne Correia10.1 Introduction 16710.2 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Fresh Bone 16810.3 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Stages of Thermal Damage 17010.4 Heat Fractures 17110.5 Blunt Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17210.6 Sharp Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17510.7 Gunshot Trauma in Burnt Remains 17710.8 Case Study: 3D Modelling of Traumatic and Heat Fractures in Cranial and Irregular Bone 17910.9 Discussion 18210.10 Conclusions 184Acknowledgments 185Permissions 185References 185Part 3 Analytical Approaches to the Analysis of Burnt Bone11 Biochemical Alterations of Bone Subjected to Fire 193Sarah Ellingham and Sara C. Zapico11.1 The Biological and Chemical Makeup of Fresh Bone 19311.1.1 Introduction 19311.2 Bone Transformation When Subjected to Heat 19511.3 Analytical Approaches to Observing Bone Transformation 19611.3.1 Colorimetry 19611.3.2 SEM-EDX 19611.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared-Spectroscopy 19811.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 20011.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction 20111.3.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 20211.3.7 Amino Acid Racemization 20211.4 DNA 20411.5 Changes to the Bone at Different Temperatures 20511.5.1 100°C Exposure 20511.5.2 200°C Exposure 20611.5.3 300°C Exposure 20611.5.4 400°C Exposure 20711.5.5 500°C Exposure 20711.5.6 600°C Exposure 20711.5.7 700°C Exposure 20711.5.8 800°C Exposure 20811.5.9 900°C Exposure 20811.5.10 1000°C Exposure 20811.6 Conclusion 208Acknowledgment 209References 20912 DNA Profiling from Burnt Remains 213Sara C. Zapico and Rebecca Stone-Gordon12.1 Introduction 21312.2 Research Studies on Burnt Remains 21412.3 Forensic Cases 21812.4 Alternative Approaches and New Technologies 22112.4.1 Assessment of DNA Damage 22112.4.2 Alternatives for DNA Extraction 22212.4.3 New Technologies 22312.5 Conclusions 225References 22613 Applying Colorimetry to the Study of Low Temperature Thermal Changes in Bone 229Christopher W. Schmidt and Alexandria McDaniel13.1 Introduction 22913.2 Colorimetry 23013.3 Challenges of Colorimetry 23213.4 Case Study 23313.5 Conclusion 236References 23614 The Use of Histology to Distinguish Animal from Human Burnt Bone with Reference to Some Limitations 241Pamela Mayne Correia; Kalyna Horocholyn and Kassandra Pointer14.1 Introduction 24114.2 Bone Tissue 24214.2.1 Primary Bone Tissue 24314.2.2 Secondary Bone 25214.3 Vertebrate Histology 25414.4 Burnt Bone Histology 25614.5 Case Study for Comparison of Histology of Cremated Bone 25914.5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis for Case Study 25914.6 Discussion 26414.7 Conclusion 266References 26715 Isotope Analysis from Cremated Remains 273Christophe Snoeck15.1 Introduction 27315.2 Infrared Analyses 27415.3 Radiocarbon Dating 27615.4 Isotope Analyses 27715.4.1 Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Ratios 27715.4.2 Strontium Isotope Ratios and Concentrations 28115.5 Archaeological Case Studies 28215.5.1 Stonehenge 28215.5.2 Meuse Basin Belgium and the Netherlands 28315.6 Conclusions 285Acknowledgments 285References 28516 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced Bone 291Rachael M. Carew and David Errickson16.1 Introduction 29116.2 Technological Progression 29216.3 The Current Technology 29416.3.1 Two-Dimensional Imaging 29416.3.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging 29516.4 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced and Burnt Bodies 29916.4.1 Locating and Identifying Burnt Bone 29916.4.2 Visual Capture and Documentation for Recording and Archiving 30016.4.3 Quantifying and Analyzing Burnt Remains 30116.4.4 Reconstruction 30216.4.5 Ethical and Legal Considerations within the Forensic Context 30516.5 Discussion and Conclusion 306References 30817 The First Reference Collection for the Research of Burnt Human Skeletal Remains Stemming from the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection (Portugal) 313David Gonçalves; Calil Makhoul; Maria Teresa Ferreira and Eugénia Cunha17.1 Introduction 31317.1.1 The Challenge Posed by Burnt Skeletal Remains 31317.1.2 Changing the Paradigm 31517.1.3 The 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection 32017.1.4 Preparing the Skeletons 32117.1.5 Composition of the Collection 32317.2 Research Potential 32417.3 Final Comments 327Acknowledgments 328References 328Part 4 Case Studies18 Analysis of Burnt Human Remains: Statistical Perspectives from Casework in Forensic Anthropology 337Douglas H. Ubelaker; Cassandra M. DeGaglia and Haley Khosrowshahi18.1 Introduction 33718.2 Materials and Methods 33718.3 Results 33918.4 Discussion 34218.5 Conclusions 344Literature Cited 34419 The Challenge of Burnt Remains from the Brazilian “Microwave Oven” 345Melina Calmon Silva; Eugénia Cunha and Yara Vieira Lemos19.1 Introduction 34519.2 Brazilian Homicide Rates 34619.3 The Relationship between Homicide and Drugs 34719.4 The “Microwave Oven” Modality of Death / Disposability of Human Remains 34819.4 Phases of Rubber Tire Combustion 35019.5 The Challenges of Investigating “Microwave Oven” Deaths 35119.6 The Role of Forensic Anthropology 35319.6.1 Case Study 1 35419.6.2 Case Study 2 35919.7 Conclusion 365Conflicts of Interest 366Ethical Approval 366Acknowledgments 366References 36720 Recovery and Identification of Fatal Fire Victims from the 2018 Northern California Camp Fire Disaster 371Colleen Milligan; Alison Galloway; Ashley Kendell; Lauren Zephro; P. Willey and Eric Bartelink20.1 Overview of the Camp Fire 37120.2 Wildfire Burn Environments and Condition of Remains 37420.3 Field to Morgue: What’s Important for Identification Efforts? 37520.4 Morgue Identification 37920.5 Conclusions 381References 38121 Recovery and Identification of Burnt Remains in a Military Theatre of Operations: The Warrior Six 383Julie Roberts21.1 Introduction 38321.1.1 Improvised Explosive Devices and Blast Injuries 38421.1.2 The Effects of Heat on Bone 38421.2 Background to the Case 38521.3 Assessment of the Vehicle and Recovered Remains 38721.4 Excavation Strategy and Methodology 39021.5 Examination of the Remains in the Temporary Mortuary 39421.6 Examinations in the Role 3 Hospital 39821.6.1 Soldier A 39821.6.2 Soldier B 39821.6.3 Soldier C 39921.6.4 Soldier D 39921.6.5 Soldier E 40021.6.6 Soldier F 40021.7 Post-mortem Examinations and Positive Identification in the UK 40121.8 Conclusions 403Acknowledgments 403References 40322 Volcanoes Bones and Heat: The Case of the AD 79 Victims of Vesuvius 407Pier paolo Petrone22.1 Introduction 40722.2 The AD 79 Eruption of Vesuvius 40822.3 The Date of the Eruption 41022.4 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Discovery 41122.5 Bioarchaeological and Taphonomic Study 41322.6 The Causes of Death 41822.7 The Most Recent Studies 42022.8 An Exceptional Discovery 42722.9 Conclusions 430References 431Index 437

Edited by Sarah Ellingham, Forensic Coordinator, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, Switzerland. Joe Adserias Garriga, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst University, Pennsylvania, USA. Sara C. Zapico, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey ­Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA, and Research Collaborator, Department of Anthropology, National ­Museum of ­Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Douglas H. Ubelaker, Curator and Senior Scientist, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of ­Natural ­History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.

• About the Editors xiiiList of Contributors xvPreface xxviiSeries Preface xxix1 History of the Study of Burnt Remains 1Douglas H. Ubelaker and Austin A. Shamlou1.1 Early Developments Prior to 1980 11.2 Post-1980 Advanced Experimentation and Casework 31.3 The 1990s: New Methods and Case Applications 41.4 Summary and Conclusions 6References 7Part 1 Search and Recovery of Burnt Human Remains from the Fire Scene2 Fire Environments and Characteristic Burn Patterns of Human Remains from Four Common Types of Fatal Fire Scenes 13Elayne Pope2.1 Introduction 132.2 Experimental Research of Fire and Human Bodies 142.3 How the Human Body Burns 142.4 Variables of Fire Environments 172.5 Structure Fires 182.6 Burning Directly on the Floor 192.7 The Body on Furnishings: Couches and Chairs 192.8 The Body on Furnishings: Bed 212.9 Loss of the Floor 222.10 Collapse into a Lower Level 232.11 Vehicle Fires 242.12 Driver and Passenger Space 252.13 Rear Passenger Space with Bench Seats 262.14 Trunk Environment 262.15 Confined Space Fires 282.16 Outdoor Space Fires 292.17 Ignitable Liquids on Bodies 292.18 Burning Outdoor Debris Piles 302.19 Post-Fire Fragmentation of Burnt Bones 312.20 Suppression 322.21 Recovery and Transport from Fatal Fire Scenes 332.22 Conclusions 35References 353 Recovery and Interpretation of Human Remains from Fatal Fire Scenes 37Alexandra R. Klales; Allison Nesbitt; Dennis C. Dirkmaat and Luis L. Cabo3.1 Introduction 373.2 Summary of Fires in the USA 393.3 Statement of the Problem 393.4 Current Fatal Fire Victim Recovery Protocols 423.5 NIJ Protocols 433.6 Special Circumstances 513.7 Conclusions 55References 554 Considerations to Maximize Recovery of Post-mortem Dental Information to Facilitate Identification of Severely Incinerated Human Remains 59John Berketa and Denice Higgins4.1 Introduction 594.2 Identification 594.3 Documentation 604.4 Preparation 614.5 Prepacked Scene Equipment 614.6 Scene Arrival 634.7 Safety Issues 634.8 Overall Scene Evaluation 654.9 Considerations Regarding DNA Evidence 664.10 Considerations Regarding Dental Evidence 674.11 Moving the Victim 694.12 Conclusions 71References 71Part 2 Examination and Identification of Burnt Human Remains5 Methods for Analyzing Burnt Human Remains 75Amanda N. Williams5.1 Anthropological Methods for Classifying Burnt Remains 765.2 Medicolegal Classification Methods 785.3 Need for New Model within the Forensic Sciences 795.4 A New Classification System 805.5 Best Practices in Applying this New Model 835.6 Case Study #1 835.7 Case Study #2 865.8 Case Study #3 885.9 Case Study #4 905.10 Case Study #5 925.11 Broader Implications 955.12 Conclusions 95Acknowledgments 96References 966 Burnt Human Remains and Forensic Medicine 99Sarah Ellingham; Joe Adserias-Garriga and Peter Ellis6.1 Fire Death Statistics 996.2 Statistics of Manner of Fire-Related Deaths 1006.2.1 Prevalence of Self-Immolation 1006.2.2 Prevalence of Criminal Immolation 1016.3 Fire Damage to the Body 1026.4 Classification of the Degree of Fire Damage 1036.5 Medicolegal Determination of Cause of Death 1056.6 Medicolegal Determination of Manner of Death 1066.7 The Use of Post-Mortem Imaging for the Analysis of Burn Victims 1086.8 Conclusion 110Acknowledgments 110References 1107 Skeletal Alteration of Burnt Remains through Fire Exposure 113Joe Adserias-Garriga7.1 Assessment of the Severity of the Thermal Damage in the Forensic Context 1147.2 Soft Tissue Alterations by Fire Exposure 1157.3 Bone Alteration by Fire Exposure 1167.4 Teeth Alteration by Fire Exposure 1207.5 Signature Changes in Skeletal Elements after Cremation 1227.6 Conclusions 129References 1308 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation from Burnt Remains 133Tim J.U. Thompson8.1 Why Does Burning Affect Methods of Identification? 1348.2 How Does the Context of Burning Impede the Creation of Biological Profiles? 1358.3 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation of Burnt Remains 1378.3.1 Morphological Methods 1378.3.2 Metric Methods 1398.3.3 Other Approaches to Biological Profile Estimation 1408.4 Conclusions 142References 1429 Victim Identification: The Role of Incinerated Dental Materials 147Peter J. Bush; Mary A. Bush and Raymond Miller9.1 Introduction 1479.2 Microstructural Changes in Teeth after Incineration 1489.3 Structural Changes Due to Restorative Procedures 1499.4 Case Reports 1519.4.1 Case Report 1: Airline Crash 1519.4.2 Case Report 2: Double Homicide 1619.5 Conclusions 165References 16610 Techniques for the Differentiation of Blunt Force Sharp Force and Gunshot Traumas from Heat Fractures in Burnt Remains 167Hanna Friedlander; Megan Moore and Pamela Mayne Correia10.1 Introduction 16710.2 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Fresh Bone 16810.3 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Stages of Thermal Damage 17010.4 Heat Fractures 17110.5 Blunt Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17210.6 Sharp Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17510.7 Gunshot Trauma in Burnt Remains 17710.8 Case Study: 3D Modelling of Traumatic and Heat Fractures in Cranial and Irregular Bone 17910.9 Discussion 18210.10 Conclusions 184Acknowledgments 185Permissions 185References 185Part 3 Analytical Approaches to the Analysis of Burnt Bone11 Biochemical Alterations of Bone Subjected to Fire 193Sarah Ellingham and Sara C. Zapico11.1 The Biological and Chemical Makeup of Fresh Bone 19311.1.1 Introduction 19311.2 Bone Transformation When Subjected to Heat 19511.3 Analytical Approaches to Observing Bone Transformation 19611.3.1 Colorimetry 19611.3.2 SEM-EDX 19611.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared-Spectroscopy 19811.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 20011.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction 20111.3.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 20211.3.7 Amino Acid Racemization 20211.4 DNA 20411.5 Changes to the Bone at Different Temperatures 20511.5.1 100°C Exposure 20511.5.2 200°C Exposure 20611.5.3 300°C Exposure 20611.5.4 400°C Exposure 20711.5.5 500°C Exposure 20711.5.6 600°C Exposure 20711.5.7 700°C Exposure 20711.5.8 800°C Exposure 20811.5.9 900°C Exposure 20811.5.10 1000°C Exposure 20811.6 Conclusion 208Acknowledgment 209References 20912 DNA Profiling from Burnt Remains 213Sara C. Zapico and Rebecca Stone-Gordon12.1 Introduction 21312.2 Research Studies on Burnt Remains 21412.3 Forensic Cases 21812.4 Alternative Approaches and New Technologies 22112.4.1 Assessment of DNA Damage 22112.4.2 Alternatives for DNA Extraction 22212.4.3 New Technologies 22312.5 Conclusions 225References 22613 Applying Colorimetry to the Study of Low Temperature Thermal Changes in Bone 229Christopher W. Schmidt and Alexandria McDaniel13.1 Introduction 22913.2 Colorimetry 23013.3 Challenges of Colorimetry 23213.4 Case Study 23313.5 Conclusion 236References 23614 The Use of Histology to Distinguish Animal from Human Burnt Bone with Reference to Some Limitations 241Pamela Mayne Correia; Kalyna Horocholyn and Kassandra Pointer14.1 Introduction 24114.2 Bone Tissue 24214.2.1 Primary Bone Tissue 24314.2.2 Secondary Bone 25214.3 Vertebrate Histology 25414.4 Burnt Bone Histology 25614.5 Case Study for Comparison of Histology of Cremated Bone 25914.5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis for Case Study 25914.6 Discussion 26414.7 Conclusion 266References 26715 Isotope Analysis from Cremated Remains 273Christophe Snoeck15.1 Introduction 27315.2 Infrared Analyses 27415.3 Radiocarbon Dating 27615.4 Isotope Analyses 27715.4.1 Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Ratios 27715.4.2 Strontium Isotope Ratios and Concentrations 28115.5 Archaeological Case Studies 28215.5.1 Stonehenge 28215.5.2 Meuse Basin Belgium and the Netherlands 28315.6 Conclusions 285Acknowledgments 285References 28516 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced Bone 291Rachael M. Carew and David Errickson16.1 Introduction 29116.2 Technological Progression 29216.3 The Current Technology 29416.3.1 Two-Dimensional Imaging 29416.3.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging 29516.4 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced and Burnt Bodies 29916.4.1 Locating and Identifying Burnt Bone 29916.4.2 Visual Capture and Documentation for Recording and Archiving 30016.4.3 Quantifying and Analyzing Burnt Remains 30116.4.4 Reconstruction 30216.4.5 Ethical and Legal Considerations within the Forensic Context 30516.5 Discussion and Conclusion 306References 30817 The First Reference Collection for the Research of Burnt Human Skeletal Remains Stemming from the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection (Portugal) 313David Gonçalves; Calil Makhoul; Maria Teresa Ferreira and Eugénia Cunha17.1 Introduction 31317.1.1 The Challenge Posed by Burnt Skeletal Remains 31317.1.2 Changing the Paradigm 31517.1.3 The 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection 32017.1.4 Preparing the Skeletons 32117.1.5 Composition of the Collection 32317.2 Research Potential 32417.3 Final Comments 327Acknowledgments 328References 328Part 4 Case Studies18 Analysis of Burnt Human Remains: Statistical Perspectives from Casework in Forensic Anthropology 337Douglas H. Ubelaker; Cassandra M. DeGaglia and Haley Khosrowshahi18.1 Introduction 33718.2 Materials and Methods 33718.3 Results 33918.4 Discussion 34218.5 Conclusions 344Literature Cited 34419 The Challenge of Burnt Remains from the Brazilian “Microwave Oven” 345Melina Calmon Silva; Eugénia Cunha and Yara Vieira Lemos19.1 Introduction 34519.2 Brazilian Homicide Rates 34619.3 The Relationship between Homicide and Drugs 34719.4 The “Microwave Oven” Modality of Death / Disposability of Human Remains 34819.4 Phases of Rubber Tire Combustion 35019.5 The Challenges of Investigating “Microwave Oven” Deaths 35119.6 The Role of Forensic Anthropology 35319.6.1 Case Study 1 35419.6.2 Case Study 2 35919.7 Conclusion 365Conflicts of Interest 366Ethical Approval 366Acknowledgments 366References 36720 Recovery and Identification of Fatal Fire Victims from the 2018 Northern California Camp Fire Disaster 371Colleen Milligan; Alison Galloway; Ashley Kendell; Lauren Zephro; P. Willey and Eric Bartelink20.1 Overview of the Camp Fire 37120.2 Wildfire Burn Environments and Condition of Remains 37420.3 Field to Morgue: What’s Important for Identification Efforts? 37520.4 Morgue Identification 37920.5 Conclusions 381References 38121 Recovery and Identification of Burnt Remains in a Military Theatre of Operations: The Warrior Six 383Julie Roberts21.1 Introduction 38321.1.1 Improvised Explosive Devices and Blast Injuries 38421.1.2 The Effects of Heat on Bone 38421.2 Background to the Case 38521.3 Assessment of the Vehicle and Recovered Remains 38721.4 Excavation Strategy and Methodology 39021.5 Examination of the Remains in the Temporary Mortuary 39421.6 Examinations in the Role 3 Hospital 39821.6.1 Soldier A 39821.6.2 Soldier B 39821.6.3 Soldier C 39921.6.4 Soldier D 39921.6.5 Soldier E 40021.6.6 Soldier F 40021.7 Post-mortem Examinations and Positive Identification in the UK 40121.8 Conclusions 403Acknowledgments 403References 40322 Volcanoes Bones and Heat: The Case of the AD 79 Victims of Vesuvius 407Pier paolo Petrone22.1 Introduction 40722.2 The AD 79 Eruption of Vesuvius 40822.3 The Date of the Eruption 41022.4 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Discovery 41122.5 Bioarchaeological and Taphonomic Study 41322.6 The Causes of Death 41822.7 The Most Recent Studies 42022.8 An Exceptional Discovery 42722.9 Conclusions 430References 431Index 437

Edited by Sarah Ellingham, Forensic Coordinator, International Committee of the Red Cross (ICRC), Geneva, Switzerland. Joe Adserias Garriga, Assistant Professor, Department of Applied Forensic Sciences, Mercyhurst University, Pennsylvania, USA. Sara C. Zapico, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemistry and Environmental Science, New Jersey ­Institute of Technology, New Jersey, USA, and Research Collaborator, Department of Anthropology, National ­Museum of ­Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA. Douglas H. Ubelaker, Curator and Senior Scientist, Department of Anthropology, National Museum of ­Natural ­History, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, DC, USA.

• About the Editors xiiiList of Contributors xvPreface xxviiSeries Preface xxix1 History of the Study of Burnt Remains 1Douglas H. Ubelaker and Austin A. Shamlou1.1 Early Developments Prior to 1980 11.2 Post-1980 Advanced Experimentation and Casework 31.3 The 1990s: New Methods and Case Applications 41.4 Summary and Conclusions 6References 7Part 1 Search and Recovery of Burnt Human Remains from the Fire Scene2 Fire Environments and Characteristic Burn Patterns of Human Remains from Four Common Types of Fatal Fire Scenes 13Elayne Pope2.1 Introduction 132.2 Experimental Research of Fire and Human Bodies 142.3 How the Human Body Burns 142.4 Variables of Fire Environments 172.5 Structure Fires 182.6 Burning Directly on the Floor 192.7 The Body on Furnishings: Couches and Chairs 192.8 The Body on Furnishings: Bed 212.9 Loss of the Floor 222.10 Collapse into a Lower Level 232.11 Vehicle Fires 242.12 Driver and Passenger Space 252.13 Rear Passenger Space with Bench Seats 262.14 Trunk Environment 262.15 Confined Space Fires 282.16 Outdoor Space Fires 292.17 Ignitable Liquids on Bodies 292.18 Burning Outdoor Debris Piles 302.19 Post-Fire Fragmentation of Burnt Bones 312.20 Suppression 322.21 Recovery and Transport from Fatal Fire Scenes 332.22 Conclusions 35References 353 Recovery and Interpretation of Human Remains from Fatal Fire Scenes 37Alexandra R. Klales; Allison Nesbitt; Dennis C. Dirkmaat and Luis L. Cabo3.1 Introduction 373.2 Summary of Fires in the USA 393.3 Statement of the Problem 393.4 Current Fatal Fire Victim Recovery Protocols 423.5 NIJ Protocols 433.6 Special Circumstances 513.7 Conclusions 55References 554 Considerations to Maximize Recovery of Post-mortem Dental Information to Facilitate Identification of Severely Incinerated Human Remains 59John Berketa and Denice Higgins4.1 Introduction 594.2 Identification 594.3 Documentation 604.4 Preparation 614.5 Prepacked Scene Equipment 614.6 Scene Arrival 634.7 Safety Issues 634.8 Overall Scene Evaluation 654.9 Considerations Regarding DNA Evidence 664.10 Considerations Regarding Dental Evidence 674.11 Moving the Victim 694.12 Conclusions 71References 71Part 2 Examination and Identification of Burnt Human Remains5 Methods for Analyzing Burnt Human Remains 75Amanda N. Williams5.1 Anthropological Methods for Classifying Burnt Remains 765.2 Medicolegal Classification Methods 785.3 Need for New Model within the Forensic Sciences 795.4 A New Classification System 805.5 Best Practices in Applying this New Model 835.6 Case Study #1 835.7 Case Study #2 865.8 Case Study #3 885.9 Case Study #4 905.10 Case Study #5 925.11 Broader Implications 955.12 Conclusions 95Acknowledgments 96References 966 Burnt Human Remains and Forensic Medicine 99Sarah Ellingham; Joe Adserias-Garriga and Peter Ellis6.1 Fire Death Statistics 996.2 Statistics of Manner of Fire-Related Deaths 1006.2.1 Prevalence of Self-Immolation 1006.2.2 Prevalence of Criminal Immolation 1016.3 Fire Damage to the Body 1026.4 Classification of the Degree of Fire Damage 1036.5 Medicolegal Determination of Cause of Death 1056.6 Medicolegal Determination of Manner of Death 1066.7 The Use of Post-Mortem Imaging for the Analysis of Burn Victims 1086.8 Conclusion 110Acknowledgments 110References 1107 Skeletal Alteration of Burnt Remains through Fire Exposure 113Joe Adserias-Garriga7.1 Assessment of the Severity of the Thermal Damage in the Forensic Context 1147.2 Soft Tissue Alterations by Fire Exposure 1157.3 Bone Alteration by Fire Exposure 1167.4 Teeth Alteration by Fire Exposure 1207.5 Signature Changes in Skeletal Elements after Cremation 1227.6 Conclusions 129References 1308 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation from Burnt Remains 133Tim J.U. Thompson8.1 Why Does Burning Affect Methods of Identification? 1348.2 How Does the Context of Burning Impede the Creation of Biological Profiles? 1358.3 Challenges of Biological Profile Estimation of Burnt Remains 1378.3.1 Morphological Methods 1378.3.2 Metric Methods 1398.3.3 Other Approaches to Biological Profile Estimation 1408.4 Conclusions 142References 1429 Victim Identification: The Role of Incinerated Dental Materials 147Peter J. Bush; Mary A. Bush and Raymond Miller9.1 Introduction 1479.2 Microstructural Changes in Teeth after Incineration 1489.3 Structural Changes Due to Restorative Procedures 1499.4 Case Reports 1519.4.1 Case Report 1: Airline Crash 1519.4.2 Case Report 2: Double Homicide 1619.5 Conclusions 165References 16610 Techniques for the Differentiation of Blunt Force Sharp Force and Gunshot Traumas from Heat Fractures in Burnt Remains 167Hanna Friedlander; Megan Moore and Pamela Mayne Correia10.1 Introduction 16710.2 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Fresh Bone 16810.3 Bone Fracture Biomechanics: Stages of Thermal Damage 17010.4 Heat Fractures 17110.5 Blunt Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17210.6 Sharp Force Trauma in Burnt Remains 17510.7 Gunshot Trauma in Burnt Remains 17710.8 Case Study: 3D Modelling of Traumatic and Heat Fractures in Cranial and Irregular Bone 17910.9 Discussion 18210.10 Conclusions 184Acknowledgments 185Permissions 185References 185Part 3 Analytical Approaches to the Analysis of Burnt Bone11 Biochemical Alterations of Bone Subjected to Fire 193Sarah Ellingham and Sara C. Zapico11.1 The Biological and Chemical Makeup of Fresh Bone 19311.1.1 Introduction 19311.2 Bone Transformation When Subjected to Heat 19511.3 Analytical Approaches to Observing Bone Transformation 19611.3.1 Colorimetry 19611.3.2 SEM-EDX 19611.3.3 Fourier Transform Infrared-Spectroscopy 19811.3.4 Raman Spectroscopy 20011.3.5 X-Ray Diffraction 20111.3.6 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) 20211.3.7 Amino Acid Racemization 20211.4 DNA 20411.5 Changes to the Bone at Different Temperatures 20511.5.1 100°C Exposure 20511.5.2 200°C Exposure 20611.5.3 300°C Exposure 20611.5.4 400°C Exposure 20711.5.5 500°C Exposure 20711.5.6 600°C Exposure 20711.5.7 700°C Exposure 20711.5.8 800°C Exposure 20811.5.9 900°C Exposure 20811.5.10 1000°C Exposure 20811.6 Conclusion 208Acknowledgment 209References 20912 DNA Profiling from Burnt Remains 213Sara C. Zapico and Rebecca Stone-Gordon12.1 Introduction 21312.2 Research Studies on Burnt Remains 21412.3 Forensic Cases 21812.4 Alternative Approaches and New Technologies 22112.4.1 Assessment of DNA Damage 22112.4.2 Alternatives for DNA Extraction 22212.4.3 New Technologies 22312.5 Conclusions 225References 22613 Applying Colorimetry to the Study of Low Temperature Thermal Changes in Bone 229Christopher W. Schmidt and Alexandria McDaniel13.1 Introduction 22913.2 Colorimetry 23013.3 Challenges of Colorimetry 23213.4 Case Study 23313.5 Conclusion 236References 23614 The Use of Histology to Distinguish Animal from Human Burnt Bone with Reference to Some Limitations 241Pamela Mayne Correia; Kalyna Horocholyn and Kassandra Pointer14.1 Introduction 24114.2 Bone Tissue 24214.2.1 Primary Bone Tissue 24314.2.2 Secondary Bone 25214.3 Vertebrate Histology 25414.4 Burnt Bone Histology 25614.5 Case Study for Comparison of Histology of Cremated Bone 25914.5.1 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis for Case Study 25914.6 Discussion 26414.7 Conclusion 266References 26715 Isotope Analysis from Cremated Remains 273Christophe Snoeck15.1 Introduction 27315.2 Infrared Analyses 27415.3 Radiocarbon Dating 27615.4 Isotope Analyses 27715.4.1 Carbon and Oxygen Isotope Ratios 27715.4.2 Strontium Isotope Ratios and Concentrations 28115.5 Archaeological Case Studies 28215.5.1 Stonehenge 28215.5.2 Meuse Basin Belgium and the Netherlands 28315.6 Conclusions 285Acknowledgments 285References 28516 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced Bone 291Rachael M. Carew and David Errickson16.1 Introduction 29116.2 Technological Progression 29216.3 The Current Technology 29416.3.1 Two-Dimensional Imaging 29416.3.2 Three-Dimensional Imaging 29516.4 The Application of Imaging to Heat-Induced and Burnt Bodies 29916.4.1 Locating and Identifying Burnt Bone 29916.4.2 Visual Capture and Documentation for Recording and Archiving 30016.4.3 Quantifying and Analyzing Burnt Remains 30116.4.4 Reconstruction 30216.4.5 Ethical and Legal Considerations within the Forensic Context 30516.5 Discussion and Conclusion 306References 30817 The First Reference Collection for the Research of Burnt Human Skeletal Remains Stemming from the 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection (Portugal) 313David Gonçalves; Calil Makhoul; Maria Teresa Ferreira and Eugénia Cunha17.1 Introduction 31317.1.1 The Challenge Posed by Burnt Skeletal Remains 31317.1.2 Changing the Paradigm 31517.1.3 The 21st Century Identified Skeletal Collection 32017.1.4 Preparing the Skeletons 32117.1.5 Composition of the Collection 32317.2 Research Potential 32417.3 Final Comments 327Acknowledgments 328References 328Part 4 Case Studies18 Analysis of Burnt Human Remains: Statistical Perspectives from Casework in Forensic Anthropology 337Douglas H. Ubelaker; Cassandra M. DeGaglia and Haley Khosrowshahi18.1 Introduction 33718.2 Materials and Methods 33718.3 Results 33918.4 Discussion 34218.5 Conclusions 344Literature Cited 34419 The Challenge of Burnt Remains from the Brazilian “Microwave Oven” 345Melina Calmon Silva; Eugénia Cunha and Yara Vieira Lemos19.1 Introduction 34519.2 Brazilian Homicide Rates 34619.3 The Relationship between Homicide and Drugs 34719.4 The “Microwave Oven” Modality of Death / Disposability of Human Remains 34819.4 Phases of Rubber Tire Combustion 35019.5 The Challenges of Investigating “Microwave Oven” Deaths 35119.6 The Role of Forensic Anthropology 35319.6.1 Case Study 1 35419.6.2 Case Study 2 35919.7 Conclusion 365Conflicts of Interest 366Ethical Approval 366Acknowledgments 366References 36720 Recovery and Identification of Fatal Fire Victims from the 2018 Northern California Camp Fire Disaster 371Colleen Milligan; Alison Galloway; Ashley Kendell; Lauren Zephro; P. Willey and Eric Bartelink20.1 Overview of the Camp Fire 37120.2 Wildfire Burn Environments and Condition of Remains 37420.3 Field to Morgue: What’s Important for Identification Efforts? 37520.4 Morgue Identification 37920.5 Conclusions 381References 38121 Recovery and Identification of Burnt Remains in a Military Theatre of Operations: The Warrior Six 383Julie Roberts21.1 Introduction 38321.1.1 Improvised Explosive Devices and Blast Injuries 38421.1.2 The Effects of Heat on Bone 38421.2 Background to the Case 38521.3 Assessment of the Vehicle and Recovered Remains 38721.4 Excavation Strategy and Methodology 39021.5 Examination of the Remains in the Temporary Mortuary 39421.6 Examinations in the Role 3 Hospital 39821.6.1 Soldier A 39821.6.2 Soldier B 39821.6.3 Soldier C 39921.6.4 Soldier D 39921.6.5 Soldier E 40021.6.6 Soldier F 40021.7 Post-mortem Examinations and Positive Identification in the UK 40121.8 Conclusions 403Acknowledgments 403References 40322 Volcanoes Bones and Heat: The Case of the AD 79 Victims of Vesuvius 407Pier paolo Petrone22.1 Introduction 40722.2 The AD 79 Eruption of Vesuvius 40822.3 The Date of the Eruption 41022.4 Historical and Archaeological Context of the Discovery 41122.5 Bioarchaeological and Taphonomic Study 41322.6 The Causes of Death 41822.7 The Most Recent Studies 42022.8 An Exceptional Discovery 42722.9 Conclusions 430References 431Index 437