Blockchain for Distributed Systems Security

SACHIN S. SHETTY, PHD, is an Associate Professor in the Virginia Modeling, Analysis, and Simulation Center and Department of Modeling, Simulation and Visualization Engineering at Old Dominion University. CHARLES A. KAMHOUA, PHD, is a researcher at the US Army Research Laboratory's Network Security Branch. LAURENT L. NJILLA, PHD, is a research electronics engineer and the program manager of Disruptive Information Technology at the Information Directorate/Cyber Assurance Branch of the Air Force Research Laboratory.

• Foreword xiiiPreface xvList of Contributors xixPart I Introduction to Blockchain 11 Introduction 3Sachin S. Shetty, Laurent Njilla, and Charles A. Kamhoua1.1 Blockchain Overview 31.1.1 Blockchain Building Blocks 51.1.2 Blockchain Commercial Use Cases 61.1.3 Blockchain Military Cyber Operations Use Cases 111.1.4 Blockchain Challenges 131.2 Overview of the Book 161.2.1 Chapter 2: Distributed Consensus Protocols and Algorithms 161.2.2 Chapter 3: Overview of Attack Surfaces in Blockchain 171.2.3 Chapter 4: Data Provenance in Cloud Storage with Blockchain 171.2.4 Chapter 5: Blockchain-based Solution to Automotive Security and Privacy 181.2.5 Chapter 6: Blockchain-based Dynamic Key Management for IoT-Transportation Security Protection 191.2.6 Chapter 7: Blockchain-enabled Information Sharing Framework for Cybersecurity 191.2.7 Chapter 8: Blockcloud Security Analysis 201.2.8 Chapter 9: Security and Privacy of Permissioned and Permissionless Blockchain 201.2.9 Chapter 10: Shocking Public Blockchains’ Memory with Unconfirmed Transactions—New DDoS Attacks and Countermeasures 211.2.10 Chapter 11: Preventing Digital Currency Miners From Launching Attacks Against Mining Pools by a Reputation-Based Paradigm 211.2.11 Chapter 12: Private Blockchain Configurations for Improved IoT Security 221.2.12 Chapter 13: Blockchain Evaluation Platform 22References 232 Distributed Consensus Protocols and Algorithms 25Yang Xiao, Ning Zhang, Jin Li, Wenjing Lou, and Y. Thomas Hou2.1 Introduction 252.2 Fault-tolerant Consensus in a Distributed System 262.2.1 The System Model 262.2.2 BFT Consensus 282.2.3 The OM Algorithm 292.2.4 Practical Consensus Protocols in Distributed Computing 302.3 The Nakamoto Consensus 372.3.1 The Consensus Problem 382.3.2 Network Model 382.3.3 The Consensus Protocol 392.4 Emerging Blockchain Consensus Algorithms 402.4.1 Proof of Stake 412.4.2 BFT-based Consensus 422.4.3 Proof of Elapsed Time (PoET) 442.4.4 Ripple 452.5 Evaluation and Comparison 472.6 Summary 47Acknowledgment 49References 493 Overview of Attack Surfaces in Blockchain 51Muhammad Saad, Jeffrey Spaulding, Laurent Njilla, Charles A. Kamhoua, DaeHun Nyang, and Aziz Mohaisen3.1 Introduction 513.2 Overview of Blockchain and its Operations 533.3 Blockchain Attacks 543.3.1 Blockchain Fork 543.3.2 Stale Blocks and Orphaned Blocks 543.3.3 Countering Blockchain Structure Attacks 553.4 Blockchain’s Peer-to-Peer System 553.4.1 Selfish Mining 563.4.2 The 51% Attack 573.4.3 DNS Attacks 573.4.4 DDoS Attacks 583.4.5 Consensus Delay 593.4.6 Countering Peer-to-Peer Attacks 593.5 Application Oriented Attacks 603.5.1 Blockchain Ingestion 603.5.2 Double Spending 603.5.3 Wallet Theft 613.5.4 Countering Application Oriented Attacks 613.6 Related Work 613.7 Conclusion and Future Work 62References 62Part II Blockchain Solutions for Distributed System Security 674 ProvChain: Blockchain-based Cloud Data Provenance 69Xueping Liang, Sachin S. Shetty, Deepak Tosh, Laurent Njilla, Charles A. Kamhoua, and Kevin Kwiat4.1 Introduction 694.2 Background and Related Work 704.2.1 Data Provenance 704.2.2 Data Provenance in the Cloud 714.2.3 Blockchain 734.2.4 Blockchain and Data Provenance 744.3 ProvChain Architecture 754.3.1 Architecture Overview 764.3.2 Preliminaries and Concepts 774.3.3 Threat Model 784.3.4 Key Establishment 784.4 ProvChain Implementation 794.4.1 Provenance Data Collection and Storage 804.4.2 Provenance Data Validation 834.5 Evaluation 854.5.1 Summary of ProvChain’s Capabilities 854.5.2 Performance and Overhead 864.6 Conclusions and Future Work 90Acknowledgment 91References 925 A Blockchain-based Solution to Automotive Security and Privacy 95Ali Dorri, Marco Steger, Salil S. Kanhere, and Raja Jurdak5.1 Introduction 955.2 An Introduction to Blockchain 985.3 The Proposed Framework 1015.4 Applications 1035.4.1 Remote Software Updates 1035.4.2 Insurance 1055.4.3 Electric Vehicles and Smart Charging Services 1055.4.4 Car-sharing Services 1065.4.5 Supply Chain 1065.4.6 Liability 1075.5 Evaluation and Discussion 1085.5.1 Security and Privacy Analysis 1085.5.2 Performance Evaluation 1095.6 Related Works 1125.7 Conclusion 113References 1146 Blockchain-based Dynamic Key Management for IoT-Transportation Security Protection 117Ao Lei, Yue Cao, Shihan Bao, Philip Asuquom, Haitham Cruickshank, and Zhili Sun6.1 Introduction 1176.2 Use Case 1196.2.1 Message Handover in VCS 1206.3 Blockchain-based Dynamic Key Management Scheme 1246.4 Dynamic Transaction Collection Algorithm 1256.4.1 Transaction Format 1256.4.2 Block Format 1276.5 Time Composition 1286.5.1 Dynamic Transaction Collection Algorithm 1296.6 Performance Evaluation 1306.6.1 Experimental Assumptions and Setup 1306.6.2 Processing Time of Cryptographic Schemes 1326.6.3 Handover Time 1336.6.4 Performance of the Dynamic Transaction Collection Algorithm 1356.7 Conclusion and Future Work 138References 1407 Blockchain-enabled Information Sharing Framework for Cybersecurity 143Abdulhamid Adebayo, Danda B. Rawat, Laurent Njilla, and Charles A. Kamhoua7.1 Introduction 1437.2 The BIS Framework 1457.3 Transactions on BIS 1467.4 Cyberattack Detection and Information Sharing 1477.5 Cross-group Attack Game in Blockchain-based BIS Framework: One-way Attack 1497.6 Cross-group Attack Game in Blockchain-based BIS Framework: Two-way Attack 1517.7 Stackelberg Game for Cyberattack and Defense Analysis 1527.8 Conclusion 156References 157Part III Blockchain Security 1598 Blockcloud Security Analysis 161Deepak Tosh, Sachin S. Shetty, Xueping Liang, Laurent Njilla, Charles A. Kamhoua, and Kevin Kwiat8.1 Introduction 1618.2 Blockchain Consensus Mechanisms 1638.2.1 Proof-of-Work (PoW) Consensus 1648.2.2 Proof-of-Stake (PoS) Consensus 1658.2.3 Proof-of-Activity (PoA) Consensus 1678.2.4 Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) Consensus 1688.2.5 Proof-of-Elapsed-Time (PoET) Consensus 1698.2.6 Proof-of-Luck (PoL) Consensus 1708.2.7 Proof-of-Space (PoSpace) Consensus 1708.3 Blockchain Cloud and Associated Vulnerabilities 1718.3.1 Blockchain and Cloud Security 1718.3.2 Blockchain Cloud Vulnerabilities 1748.4 System Model 1798.5 Augmenting with Extra Hash Power 1808.6 Disruptive Attack Strategy Analysis 1818.6.1 Proportional Reward 1818.6.2 Pay-per-last N-shares (PPLNS) Reward 1848.7 Simulation Results and Discussion 1878.8 Conclusions and Future Directions 188Acknowledgment 190References 1909 Permissioned and Permissionless Blockchains 193Andrew Miller9.1 Introduction 1939.2 On Choosing Your Peers Wisely 1949.3 Committee Election Mechanisms 1969.4 Privacy in Permissioned and Permissionless Blockchains 1999.5 Conclusion 201References 20210 Shocking Blockchain’s Memory with Unconfirmed Transactions: New DDoS Attacks and Countermeasures 205Muhammad Saad, Laurent Njilla, Charles A. Kamhoua, Kevin Kwiat, and Aziz Mohaisen10.1 Introduction 20510.2 Related Work 20710.3 An Overview of Blockchain and Lifecycle 20810.3.1 DDoS Attack on Mempools 21010.3.2 Data Collection for Evaluation 21010.4 Threat Model 21110.5 Attack Procedure 21210.5.1 The Distribution Phase 21410.5.2 The Attack Phase 21410.5.3 Attack Cost 21410.6 Countering the Mempool Attack 21510.6.1 Fee-based Mempool Design 21610.6.2 Age-based Countermeasures 22110.7 Experiment and Results 22410.8 Conclusion 227References 22711 Preventing Digital Currency Miners from Launching Attacks Against Mining Pools Using a Reputation-based Paradigm 233Mehrdad Nojoumian, Arash Golchubian, Laurent Njilla, Kevin Kwiat, and Charles A. Kamhoua11.1 Introduction 23311.2 Preliminaries 23411.2.1 Digital Currencies: Terminologies and Mechanics 23411.2.2 Game Theory: Basic Notions and Definitions 23511.3 Literature Review 23611.4 Reputation-based Mining Model and Setting 23811.5 Mining in a Reputation-based Model 24011.5.1 Prevention of the Re-entry Attack 24011.5.2 Technical Discussion on Detection Mechanisms 24111.5.3 Colluding Miner’s Dilemma 24311.5.4 Repeated Mining Game 24411.5.5 Colluding Miners’ Preferences 24511.5.6 Colluding Miners’ Utilities 24511.6 Evaluation of Our Model Using Game-theoretical Analyses 24611.7 Concluding Remarks 248Acknowledgment 249References 249Part IV Blockchain Implementation 25312 Private Blockchain Configurations for Improved IoT Security 255Adriaan Larmuseau and Devu Manikantan Shila12.1 Introduction 25512.2 Blockchain-enabled Gateway 25712.2.1 Advantages 25712.2.2 Limitations 25812.2.3 Private Ethereum Gateways for Access Control 25912.2.4 Evaluation 26212.3 Blockchain-enabled Smart End Devices 26312.3.1 Advantages 26312.3.2 Limitations 26412.3.3 Private Hyperledger Blockchain-enabled Smart Sensor Devices 26412.3.4 Evaluation 26912.4 Related Work 27012.5 Conclusion 271References 27113 Blockchain Evaluation Platform 275Peter Foytik and Sachin S. Shetty13.1 Introduction 27513.1.1 Architecture 27613.1.2 Distributed Ledger 27613.1.3 Participating Nodes 27713.1.4 Communication 27713.1.5 Consensus 27813.2 Hyperledger Fabric 27913.2.1 Node Types 27913.2.2 Docker 28013.2.3 Hyperledger Fabric Example Exercise 28113.2.4 Running the First Network 28113.2.5 Running the Kafka Network 28613.3 Measures of Performance 29113.3.1 Performance Metrics With the Proof-of-Stake Simulation 29313.3.2 Performance Measures With the Hyperledger Fabric Example 29613.4 Simple Blockchain Simulation 30013.5 Blockchain Simulation Introduction 30313.5.1 Methodology 30413.5.2 Simulation Integration With Live Blockchain 30413.5.3 Simulation Integration With Simulated Blockchain 30613.5.4 Verification and Validation 30613.5.5 Example 30713.6 Conclusion and Future Work 309References 31014 Summary and Future Work 311Sachin S. Shetty, Laurent Njilla, and Charles A. Kamhoua14.1 Introduction 31114.2 Blockchain and Cloud Security 31214.3 Blockchain and IoT Security 31214.4 Blockchain Security and Privacy 31414.5 Experimental Testbed and Performance Evaluation 31614.6 The Future 316Index 319