ROBERT ARP is an instructor of philosophy and a researcher for the US Army. He has published numerous books and articles in philosophy and other areas. More information about his work and research interests can be found on his website. STEVEN BARBONE is an Associate Professor of philosophy at San Diego State University. He has published numerous articles and book chapters on Baruch Spinoza. MICHAEL BRUCE works in the software industry in San Francisco. With Steven Barbone, he edited Just the Arguments (Wiley Blackwell, 2011). An avid researcher in the history of philosophy and psychology, he has been published widely and is an active blogger for Psychology Today.

• Notes on Contributors xiiiIntroduction 1Part I Formal Fallacies 35Propositional Logic 371 Affirming a Disjunct 39Jason Iuliano2 Affirming the Consequent 42Brett Gaul3 Denying the Antecedent 46Brett GaulCategorical Logic 494 Exclusive Premises 51Charlene Elsby5 Four Terms 55Charlene Elsby6 Illicit Major and Minor Terms 60Charlene Elsby7 Undistributed Middle 63Charlene ElsbyPart II Informal Fallacies 67Fallacies of Relevance 698 Ad Hominem: Bias 71George Wrisley9 Ad Hominem: Circumstantial 77George Wrisley10 Ad Hominem: Direct 83George Wrisley11 Ad Hominem: Tu Quoque 88George Wrisley12 Adverse Consequences 94David Vander Laan13 Appeal to Emotion: Force or Fear 98George Wrisley14 Appeal to Emotion: Pity 102George Wrisley15 Appeal to Ignorance 106Benjamin W. McCraw16 Appeal to the People 112Benjamin W. McCraw17 Appeal to Personal Incredulity 115Tuomas W. Manninen18 Appeal to Ridicule 118Gregory L. Bock19 Appeal to Tradition 121Nicolas Michaud20 Argument from Fallacy 125Christian Cotton21 Availability Error 128David Kyle Johnson22 Base Rate 133Tuomas W. Manninen23 Burden of Proof 137Andrew Russo24 Countless Counterfeits 140David Kyle Johnson25 Diminished Responsibility 145Tuomas W. Manninen26 Essentializing 149Jack Bowen27 Galileo Gambit 152David Kyle Johnson28 Gambler’s Fallacy 157Grant Sterling29 Genetic Fallacy 160Frank Scalambrino30 Historian’s Fallacy 163Heather Rivera31 Homunculus 165Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray32 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority 168Nicolas Michaud33 Irrelevant Conclusion 172Steven Barbone34 Kettle Logic 174Andy Wible35 Line Drawing 177Alexander E. Hooke36 Mistaking the Relevance of Proximate Causation 181David Kyle Johnson37 Moving the Goalposts 185Tuomas W. Manninen38 Mystery, Therefore Magic 189David Kyle Johnson39 Naturalistic Fallacy 193Benjamin W. McCraw40 Poisoning the Well 196Roberto Ruiz41 Proving Too Much 201Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray42 Psychologist’s Fallacy 204Frank Scalambrino43 Red Herring 208Heather Rivera44 Reductio ad Hitlerum 212Frank Scalambrino45 Argument by Repetition 215Leigh Kolb46 Special Pleading 219Dan Yim47 Straw Man 223Scott Aikin and John Casey48 Sunk Cost 227Robert Arp49 Two Wrongs Make a Right 230David LaRocca50 Weak Analogy 234Bertha Alvarez ManninenFallacies of Ambiguity 23951 Accent 241Roberto Ruiz52 Amphiboly 246Roberto Ruiz53 Composition 250Jason Waller54 Confusing an Explanation for an Excuse 252Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray55 Definist Fallacy 255Christian Cotton56 Division 259Jason Waller57 Equivocation 261Bertha Alvarez Manninen58 Etymological Fallacy 266Leigh Kolb59 Euphemism 270Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray60 Hedging 273Christian Cotton61 If by Whiskey 277Christian Cotton62 Inflation of Conflict 280Andy Wible63 Legalistic Mistake 282Marco Antonio Azevedo64 Oversimplification 286Dan Burkett65 Proof by Verbosity 289Phil Smolenski66 Sorites Fallacy 293Jack BowenFallacies of Presumption 29767 Accident 299Steven Barbone68 All or Nothing 301David Kyle Johnson69 Anthropomorphic Bias 305David Kyle Johnson70 Begging the Question 308Heather Rivera71 Chronological Snobbery 311A.G. Holdier72 Complex Question 314A.G. Holdier73 Confirmation Bias 317David Kyle Johnson74 Conjunction 321Jason Iuliano75 Constructive Nature of Perception 324David Kyle Johnson76 Converse Accident 330Steven Barbone77 Existential Fallacy 332Frank Scalambrino78 False Cause: Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 335Bertha Alvarez Manninen79 False Cause: Ignoring Common Cause 338Bertha Alvarez Manninen80 False Cause: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 342Bertha Alvarez Manninen81 False Dilemma 346Jennifer Culver82 Free Speech 348Scott Aikin and John Casey83 Guilt by Association 351Leigh Kolb84 Hasty Generalization 354Michael J. Muniz85 Intentional Fallacy 357Nicolas Michaud86 Is/Ought Fallacy 360Mark T. Nelson87 Masked Man 364Charles Taliaferro88 Middle Ground 367Grant Sterling89 Mind Projection 369Charles Taliaferro90 Moralistic Fallacy 371Galen Foresman91 No True Scotsman 374Tuomas W. Manninen92 Reification 378Robert Sinclair93 Representative Heuristic 382David Kyle Johnson94 Slippery Slope 385Michael J. Muniz95 Stolen Concept 388Rory E. Kraft, Jr.96 Subjective Validation 392David Kyle Johnson97 Subjectivist Fallacy 396Frank Scalambrino98 Suppressed Evidence 399David Kyle Johnson99 Unfalsifiability 403Jack Bowen100 Unwarranted Assumption 407Kimberly Baltzer‐JarayIndex 410

ROBERT ARP is an instructor of philosophy and a researcher for the US Army. He has published numerous books and articles in philosophy and other areas. More information about his work and research interests can be found on his website. STEVEN BARBONE is an Associate Professor of philosophy at San Diego State University. He has published numerous articles and book chapters on Baruch Spinoza. MICHAEL BRUCE works in the software industry in San Francisco. With Steven Barbone, he edited Just the Arguments (Wiley Blackwell, 2011). An avid researcher in the history of philosophy and psychology, he has been published widely and is an active blogger for Psychology Today.

• Notes on Contributors xiiiIntroduction 1Part I Formal Fallacies 35Propositional Logic 371 Affirming a Disjunct 39Jason Iuliano2 Affirming the Consequent 42Brett Gaul3 Denying the Antecedent 46Brett GaulCategorical Logic 494 Exclusive Premises 51Charlene Elsby5 Four Terms 55Charlene Elsby6 Illicit Major and Minor Terms 60Charlene Elsby7 Undistributed Middle 63Charlene ElsbyPart II Informal Fallacies 67Fallacies of Relevance 698 Ad Hominem: Bias 71George Wrisley9 Ad Hominem: Circumstantial 77George Wrisley10 Ad Hominem: Direct 83George Wrisley11 Ad Hominem: Tu Quoque 88George Wrisley12 Adverse Consequences 94David Vander Laan13 Appeal to Emotion: Force or Fear 98George Wrisley14 Appeal to Emotion: Pity 102George Wrisley15 Appeal to Ignorance 106Benjamin W. McCraw16 Appeal to the People 112Benjamin W. McCraw17 Appeal to Personal Incredulity 115Tuomas W. Manninen18 Appeal to Ridicule 118Gregory L. Bock19 Appeal to Tradition 121Nicolas Michaud20 Argument from Fallacy 125Christian Cotton21 Availability Error 128David Kyle Johnson22 Base Rate 133Tuomas W. Manninen23 Burden of Proof 137Andrew Russo24 Countless Counterfeits 140David Kyle Johnson25 Diminished Responsibility 145Tuomas W. Manninen26 Essentializing 149Jack Bowen27 Galileo Gambit 152David Kyle Johnson28 Gambler’s Fallacy 157Grant Sterling29 Genetic Fallacy 160Frank Scalambrino30 Historian’s Fallacy 163Heather Rivera31 Homunculus 165Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray32 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority 168Nicolas Michaud33 Irrelevant Conclusion 172Steven Barbone34 Kettle Logic 174Andy Wible35 Line Drawing 177Alexander E. Hooke36 Mistaking the Relevance of Proximate Causation 181David Kyle Johnson37 Moving the Goalposts 185Tuomas W. Manninen38 Mystery, Therefore Magic 189David Kyle Johnson39 Naturalistic Fallacy 193Benjamin W. McCraw40 Poisoning the Well 196Roberto Ruiz41 Proving Too Much 201Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray42 Psychologist’s Fallacy 204Frank Scalambrino43 Red Herring 208Heather Rivera44 Reductio ad Hitlerum 212Frank Scalambrino45 Argument by Repetition 215Leigh Kolb46 Special Pleading 219Dan Yim47 Straw Man 223Scott Aikin and John Casey48 Sunk Cost 227Robert Arp49 Two Wrongs Make a Right 230David LaRocca50 Weak Analogy 234Bertha Alvarez ManninenFallacies of Ambiguity 23951 Accent 241Roberto Ruiz52 Amphiboly 246Roberto Ruiz53 Composition 250Jason Waller54 Confusing an Explanation for an Excuse 252Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray55 Definist Fallacy 255Christian Cotton56 Division 259Jason Waller57 Equivocation 261Bertha Alvarez Manninen58 Etymological Fallacy 266Leigh Kolb59 Euphemism 270Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray60 Hedging 273Christian Cotton61 If by Whiskey 277Christian Cotton62 Inflation of Conflict 280Andy Wible63 Legalistic Mistake 282Marco Antonio Azevedo64 Oversimplification 286Dan Burkett65 Proof by Verbosity 289Phil Smolenski66 Sorites Fallacy 293Jack BowenFallacies of Presumption 29767 Accident 299Steven Barbone68 All or Nothing 301David Kyle Johnson69 Anthropomorphic Bias 305David Kyle Johnson70 Begging the Question 308Heather Rivera71 Chronological Snobbery 311A.G. Holdier72 Complex Question 314A.G. Holdier73 Confirmation Bias 317David Kyle Johnson74 Conjunction 321Jason Iuliano75 Constructive Nature of Perception 324David Kyle Johnson76 Converse Accident 330Steven Barbone77 Existential Fallacy 332Frank Scalambrino78 False Cause: Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 335Bertha Alvarez Manninen79 False Cause: Ignoring Common Cause 338Bertha Alvarez Manninen80 False Cause: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 342Bertha Alvarez Manninen81 False Dilemma 346Jennifer Culver82 Free Speech 348Scott Aikin and John Casey83 Guilt by Association 351Leigh Kolb84 Hasty Generalization 354Michael J. Muniz85 Intentional Fallacy 357Nicolas Michaud86 Is/Ought Fallacy 360Mark T. Nelson87 Masked Man 364Charles Taliaferro88 Middle Ground 367Grant Sterling89 Mind Projection 369Charles Taliaferro90 Moralistic Fallacy 371Galen Foresman91 No True Scotsman 374Tuomas W. Manninen92 Reification 378Robert Sinclair93 Representative Heuristic 382David Kyle Johnson94 Slippery Slope 385Michael J. Muniz95 Stolen Concept 388Rory E. Kraft, Jr.96 Subjective Validation 392David Kyle Johnson97 Subjectivist Fallacy 396Frank Scalambrino98 Suppressed Evidence 399David Kyle Johnson99 Unfalsifiability 403Jack Bowen100 Unwarranted Assumption 407Kimberly Baltzer‐JarayIndex 410

ROBERT ARP is an instructor of philosophy and a researcher for the US Army. He has published numerous books and articles in philosophy and other areas. More information about his work and research interests can be found on his website. STEVEN BARBONE is an Associate Professor of philosophy at San Diego State University. He has published numerous articles and book chapters on Baruch Spinoza. MICHAEL BRUCE works in the software industry in San Francisco. With Steven Barbone, he edited Just the Arguments (Wiley Blackwell, 2011). An avid researcher in the history of philosophy and psychology, he has been published widely and is an active blogger for Psychology Today.

• Notes on Contributors xiiiIntroduction 1Part I Formal Fallacies 35Propositional Logic 371 Affirming a Disjunct 39Jason Iuliano2 Affirming the Consequent 42Brett Gaul3 Denying the Antecedent 46Brett GaulCategorical Logic 494 Exclusive Premises 51Charlene Elsby5 Four Terms 55Charlene Elsby6 Illicit Major and Minor Terms 60Charlene Elsby7 Undistributed Middle 63Charlene ElsbyPart II Informal Fallacies 67Fallacies of Relevance 698 Ad Hominem: Bias 71George Wrisley9 Ad Hominem: Circumstantial 77George Wrisley10 Ad Hominem: Direct 83George Wrisley11 Ad Hominem: Tu Quoque 88George Wrisley12 Adverse Consequences 94David Vander Laan13 Appeal to Emotion: Force or Fear 98George Wrisley14 Appeal to Emotion: Pity 102George Wrisley15 Appeal to Ignorance 106Benjamin W. McCraw16 Appeal to the People 112Benjamin W. McCraw17 Appeal to Personal Incredulity 115Tuomas W. Manninen18 Appeal to Ridicule 118Gregory L. Bock19 Appeal to Tradition 121Nicolas Michaud20 Argument from Fallacy 125Christian Cotton21 Availability Error 128David Kyle Johnson22 Base Rate 133Tuomas W. Manninen23 Burden of Proof 137Andrew Russo24 Countless Counterfeits 140David Kyle Johnson25 Diminished Responsibility 145Tuomas W. Manninen26 Essentializing 149Jack Bowen27 Galileo Gambit 152David Kyle Johnson28 Gambler’s Fallacy 157Grant Sterling29 Genetic Fallacy 160Frank Scalambrino30 Historian’s Fallacy 163Heather Rivera31 Homunculus 165Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray32 Inappropriate Appeal to Authority 168Nicolas Michaud33 Irrelevant Conclusion 172Steven Barbone34 Kettle Logic 174Andy Wible35 Line Drawing 177Alexander E. Hooke36 Mistaking the Relevance of Proximate Causation 181David Kyle Johnson37 Moving the Goalposts 185Tuomas W. Manninen38 Mystery, Therefore Magic 189David Kyle Johnson39 Naturalistic Fallacy 193Benjamin W. McCraw40 Poisoning the Well 196Roberto Ruiz41 Proving Too Much 201Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray42 Psychologist’s Fallacy 204Frank Scalambrino43 Red Herring 208Heather Rivera44 Reductio ad Hitlerum 212Frank Scalambrino45 Argument by Repetition 215Leigh Kolb46 Special Pleading 219Dan Yim47 Straw Man 223Scott Aikin and John Casey48 Sunk Cost 227Robert Arp49 Two Wrongs Make a Right 230David LaRocca50 Weak Analogy 234Bertha Alvarez ManninenFallacies of Ambiguity 23951 Accent 241Roberto Ruiz52 Amphiboly 246Roberto Ruiz53 Composition 250Jason Waller54 Confusing an Explanation for an Excuse 252Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray55 Definist Fallacy 255Christian Cotton56 Division 259Jason Waller57 Equivocation 261Bertha Alvarez Manninen58 Etymological Fallacy 266Leigh Kolb59 Euphemism 270Kimberly Baltzer‐Jaray60 Hedging 273Christian Cotton61 If by Whiskey 277Christian Cotton62 Inflation of Conflict 280Andy Wible63 Legalistic Mistake 282Marco Antonio Azevedo64 Oversimplification 286Dan Burkett65 Proof by Verbosity 289Phil Smolenski66 Sorites Fallacy 293Jack BowenFallacies of Presumption 29767 Accident 299Steven Barbone68 All or Nothing 301David Kyle Johnson69 Anthropomorphic Bias 305David Kyle Johnson70 Begging the Question 308Heather Rivera71 Chronological Snobbery 311A.G. Holdier72 Complex Question 314A.G. Holdier73 Confirmation Bias 317David Kyle Johnson74 Conjunction 321Jason Iuliano75 Constructive Nature of Perception 324David Kyle Johnson76 Converse Accident 330Steven Barbone77 Existential Fallacy 332Frank Scalambrino78 False Cause: Cum Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 335Bertha Alvarez Manninen79 False Cause: Ignoring Common Cause 338Bertha Alvarez Manninen80 False Cause: Post Hoc Ergo Propter Hoc 342Bertha Alvarez Manninen81 False Dilemma 346Jennifer Culver82 Free Speech 348Scott Aikin and John Casey83 Guilt by Association 351Leigh Kolb84 Hasty Generalization 354Michael J. Muniz85 Intentional Fallacy 357Nicolas Michaud86 Is/Ought Fallacy 360Mark T. Nelson87 Masked Man 364Charles Taliaferro88 Middle Ground 367Grant Sterling89 Mind Projection 369Charles Taliaferro90 Moralistic Fallacy 371Galen Foresman91 No True Scotsman 374Tuomas W. Manninen92 Reification 378Robert Sinclair93 Representative Heuristic 382David Kyle Johnson94 Slippery Slope 385Michael J. Muniz95 Stolen Concept 388Rory E. Kraft, Jr.96 Subjective Validation 392David Kyle Johnson97 Subjectivist Fallacy 396Frank Scalambrino98 Suppressed Evidence 399David Kyle Johnson99 Unfalsifiability 403Jack Bowen100 Unwarranted Assumption 407Kimberly Baltzer‐JarayIndex 410