Applied Water Science, Volume 1

Inamuddin, PhD, is an assistant professor at the Department of Applied Chemistry, Zakir Husain College of Engineering and Technology, Faculty of Engineering and Technology, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has extensive research experience in analytical chemistry, materials chemistry, electrochemistry, renewable energy, and environmental science. He has worked on different research projects funded by various government agencies and universities and is the recipient of multiple awards, including the Fast Track Young Scientist Award and the Young Researcher of the Year Award for 2020, from Aligarh Muslim University. He has published almost 200 research articles in various international scientific journals, 18 book chapters, and 120 edited books with multiple well-known publishers.Mohd Imran Ahamed, PhD, is a research associate in the Department of Chemistry, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India. He has published several research and review articles in various international scientific journals and has co-edited multiple books. His research work includes ion-exchange chromatography, wastewater treatment, and analysis, bending actuator and electrospinning.Rajender Boddula, PhD, is currently working for the Chinese Academy of Sciences President’s International Fellowship Initiative (CAS-PIFI) at the National Center for Nanoscience and Technology (NCNST, Beijing). His academic honors include multiple fellowships and scholarships, and he has published many scientific articles in international peer-reviewed journals. He is also serving as an editorial board member and a referee for several reputed international peer-reviewed journals. He has published edited books with numerous publishers and has authored over twenty book chapters.Tauseef Ahmad Rangreez, PhD, is working as a postdoctoral fellow at the National Institute of Technology, Srinagar, India. He completed his PhD in applied chemistry from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India and worked as a project fellow under the University Grant Commission, India. He has published several research articles and co-edited books. His research interest includes ion-exchange chromatography, development of nanocomposite sensors for heavy metals and biosensors.

• Preface xix1 Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques for the Analysis of Phthalic Acid Esters in Water Samples 1Miguel Ángel González-Curbelo, Javier González-Sálamo, Diana A. Varela-Martínez and Javier Hernández-Borges1.1 Introduction 21.2 Solid-Phase Microextraction 61.3 Stir Bar Sorptive Extraction 251.4 Solid-Phase Extraction 261.5 Others Minor Sorbent-Based Microextraction Techniques 481.6 Conclusions 52Acknowledgements 53References 532 Occurrence, Human Health Risks, and Removal of Pharmaceuticals in Aqueous Systems: Current Knowledge and Future Perspectives 63Willis Gwenzi, Artwell Kanda, Concilia Danha, Norah Muisa-Zikali and Nhamo Chaukura2.1 Introduction 642.2 Occurrence and Behavior of Pharmaceutics in Aquatic Systems 652.2.1 Nature and Sources 652.2.2 Dissemination and Occurrence in Aquatic Systems 672.2.3 Behaviour in Aquatic Systems 712.3 Human Health Risks and Their Mitigation 732.3.1 Human Exposure Pathways 732.3.2 Potential Human Health Risks 742.3.3 Human Health Risks: A Developing World Perspective 812.3.4 Removal of Pharmaceuticals 822.3.4.1 Conventional Removal Methods 832.3.4.2 Advanced Removal Methods 852.3.4.3 Hybrid Removal Processes 882.4 Knowledge Gaps and Future Research Directions 882.4.1 Increasing Africa’s Research Footprint 882.4.2 Hotspot Sources and Reservoirs 892.4.3 Behavior and Fate in Aquatic Systems 892.4.4 Ecotoxicology of Pharmaceuticals and Metabolites 892.4.5 Human Exposure Pathways 892.4.6 Human Toxicology and Epidemiology 902.4.7 Removal Capacity of Low-Cost Water Treatment Processes 902.5 Summary, Conclusions, and Outlook 90Author Contributions 91References 913 Oil-Water Separations 103Pallavi Jain, Sapna Raghav and Dinesh Kumar3.1 Introduction 1033.2 Sources and Composition 1063.3 Common Oil-Water Separation Techniques 1063.4 Oil-Water Separation Technologies 1073.4.1 Advancement in the Technology of Membrane 1113.4.1.1 Polymer-Based Membranes 1113.4.1.2 Ceramic-Based Membranes 1113.5 Separation of Oil/Water Utilizing Meshes 1133.5.1 Mechanism Involved 1133.5.2 Meshes Functionalization 1143.5.2.1 Inorganic Materials 1153.5.2.2 Organic Materials 1153.6 Separation of Oil-Water Mixture Using Bioinspired Surfaces 1163.6.1 Nature’s Lesson 1163.6.2 Superhydrophilic/Phobic and Superoleophilic/Phobic Porous Surfaces 1173.7 Conclusion 118Acknowledgment 118References 1194 Microplastics Pollution 125Agnieszka Dąbrowska4.1 Introduction and General Considerations 1254.2 Key Scientific Issues Concerning Water and Microplastics Pollution 1264.3 Marine Microplastics: From the Anthropogenic Litter to the Plastisphere 1314.4 Social and Human Perspectives: From Sustainable Development to Civil Science 1334.5 Conclusions and Future Projections 134References 1345 Chloramines Formation, Toxicity, and Monitoring Methods in Aqueous Environments 139Rania El-Shaheny and Mahmoud El-Maghrabey5.1 Introduction 1405.2 Inorganic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 1405.3 Analytical Methods for Inorganic Chloramines 1435.3.1 Colorimetric and Batch Methods 1445.3.2 Chromatographic Methods 1485.3.3 Membrane Inlet Mass Spectrometry 1505.4 Organic Chloramines Formation and Toxicity 1515.5 Analytical Methods for Organic Chloramines 1545.6 Conclusions 156References 1566 Clay-Based Adsorbents for the Analysis of Dye Pollutants 163Mohammad Shahadat, Momina, Yasmin, Sunil Kumar, Suzylawati Ismail, S. Wazed Ali and Shaikh Ziauddin Ahammad6.1 Introduction 1646.1.1 Biological Method 1656.1.2 Physical Method 1656.1.3 Why Only Clays? 1656.1.4 Clay-Based Adsorbents 1666.1.4.1 Kaolinite 1666.1.4.2 Rectorite 1686.1.4.3 Halloysite 1696.1.4.4 Montmorillonite 1706.1.4.5 Sepiolite 1706.1.4.6 Laponite 1716.1.4.7 Bentonite 1716.1.4.8 Zeolites 1726.2 Membrane Filtration 1806.3 Chemical Treatment 1816.3.1 Fenton and Photo-Fenton Process 1826.3.2 Mechanism Using Acid and Base Catalyst 1826.4 Photo-Catalytic Oxidation 1866.5 Conclusions 188Acknowledgments 188References 1887 Biochar-Supported Materials for Wastewater Treatment 199Hanane Chakhtouna, Mohamed El Mehdi Mekhzoum, Nadia Zari, Hanane Benzeid, Abou el kacem Qaiss and Rachid Bouhfid7.1 Introduction 2007.2 Generalities of Biochar: Structure, Production, and Properties 2017.2.1 Biochar Structure 2017.2.2 Biochar Production 2037.2.2.1 Pyrolysis 2047.2.2.2 Gasification 2047.2.2.3 Hydrothermal Carbonization 2057.2.3 Biochar Properties 2057.2.3.1 Porosity 2057.2.3.2 Surface Area 2077.2.3.3 Surface Functional Groups 2077.2.3.4 Cation Exchange Capacity 2107.2.3.5 Aromaticity 2107.3 Biochar-Supported Materials 2127.3.1 Magnetic Biochar Composites 2127.3.2 Nano-Metal Oxide/Hydroxide-Biochar Composites 2147.3.3 Functional Nanoparticles-Coated Biochar Composites 216 7.4 Conclusion 220References 2228 Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 227Aline Meireles dos Santos, Alberto Meireles dos Santos, Patricia Arrojo da Silva, Leila Queiroz Zepka and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes8.1 Introduction 2278.2 Swine Wastewater Characteristics 2288.3 Microorganisms of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 2318.4 Classification of Biological Swine Wastewater Treatment 2358.5 Biological Processes For Swine Wastewater Treatment 2368.5.1 Suspended Growth Processes 2378.5.1.1 Activated Sludge Process 2378.5.1.2 Sequential Batch Reactor 2378.5.1.3 Sequencing Batch Membrane Bioreactor 2388.5.1.4 Anaerobic Contact Process 2388.5.1.5 Anaerobic Digestion 2388.5.2 Attached Growth Processes 2398.5.2.1 Rotating Biological Contactor 2398.5.2.2 Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket 2408.5.2.3 Anaerobic Filter 2408.5.2.4 Hybrid Anaerobic Reactor 2418.6 Challenges and Future Prospects in Swine Wastewater Treatment 241References 2429 Determination of Heavy Metal Ions From Water 255Ritu Payal and Tapasya Tomer9.1 Introduction 2559.2 Detection of Heavy Metal Ions 2569.2.1 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 2579.2.2 Nanomaterials 2579.2.3 High-Resolution Surface Plasmon Resonance Spectroscopy with Anodic Stripping Voltammetry 2589.2.4 Biosensors 2599.2.4.1 Enzyme-Based Biosensors 2609.2.4.2 Electrochemical Sensors 2619.2.4.3 Polymer-Based Biosensors 2619.2.4.4 Bacterial-Based Sensors 2629.2.4.5 Protein-Based Sensors 2629.2.5 Attenuated Total Reflectance 2629.2.6 High-Resolution Differential Surface Plasmon Resonance Sensor 2629.2.7 Hydrogels 2639.2.8 Chelating Agents 2649.2.9 Ionic Liquids 2659.2.10 Polymers 2669.2.10.1 Dendrimers 2669.2.11 Macrocylic Compounds 2669.2.12 Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry 2679.3 Conclusions 267References 26810 The Production and Role of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Medical Applications 273N. Jafta, S. Magagula, K. Lebelo, D. Nkokha and M.J. Mochane10.1 Introduction 27310.2 Functional Water 27510.3 Reduced Water 27510.4 Production of Hydrogen-Rich Water 27710.5 Mechanism Hydrogen Molecules During Reactive Oxygen Species Scavenging 27910.6 Hydrogen-Rich Water Effects on the Human Body 28010.6.1 Anti-Inflammatory Effects 28010.6.2 Anti-Radiation Effects 28110.6.3 Wound Healing Effects 28210.6.4 Anti-Diabetic Effects 28410.6.5 Anti-Neurodegenerative Effects 28510.6.6 Anti-Cancer Effects 28510.6.7 Anti-Arteriosclerosis Effects 28510.7 Other Effects of Hydrogenated Water 28510.7.1 Effect of Hydrogen-Rich Water in Hemodialysis 28510.7.2 Effect on Anti-Cancer Drug Side Effects 28610.8 Applications of Hydrogen-Rich Water 28610.8.1 In Health Care 28610.8.2 In Sports Science 28810.8.3 In Therapeutic Applications and Delayed Progression of Diseases 28910.9 Safety of Using Hydrogen-Rich Water 29010.10 Concluding Remarks 291References 29211 Hydrosulphide Treatment 299Marzie Fatehi and Ali Mohebbi11.1 Introduction 30011.1.1 Agriculture 30211.1.2 Medical 30711.1.3 Industrial 31511.2 Conclusions 325References 32612 Radionuclides: Availability, Effect, and Removal Techniques 331Tejaswini Sahoo, Rashmirekha Tripathy, Jagannath Panda, Madhuri Hembram, Saraswati Soren, C.K. Rath, Sunil Kumar Sahoo and Rojalin Sahu12.1 Introduction 33212.1.1 Available Radionuclides in the Environment 33312.1.1.1 Uranium 33312.1.1.2 Thorium (Z = 90) 33412.1.1.3 Radium (Z = 88) 33512.1.1.4 Radon (Z = 86) 33612.1.1.5 Polonium and Lead 33612.1.2 Presence of Radionuclide in Drinking Water 33712.1.2.1 Health Impacts of Radionuclides 33812.1.2.2 Health Issues Caused Due to Uranium 33812.1.2.3 Health Issues Caused Due to Radium 33912.1.2.4 Health Issues Caused Due to Radon 33912.1.2.5 Health Issues Caused Due to Lead and Polonium 33912.2 Existing Techniques and Materials Involved in Removal of Radionuclide 34012.2.1 Ion Exchange 34012.2.2 Reverse Osmosis 34012.2.3 Aeration 34112.2.4 Granulated Activated Carbon 34112.2.5 Filtration 34212.2.6 Lime Softening, Coagulation, and Co-Precipitation 34212.2.7 Flocculation 34312.2.8 Nanofilteration 34312.2.9 Greensand Filteration 34412.2.10 Nanomaterials 34412.2.10.1 Radionuclides Sequestration by MOFs 34412.2.10.2 Radionuclides Removal by COFs 34512.2.10.3 Elimination of Radionuclides by GOs 34612.2.10.4 Radionuclide Sequestration by CNTs 34612.2.11 Ionic Liquids 34712.3 Summary of Various Nanomaterial and Efficiency of Water Treating Technology 34812.4 Management of Radioactive Waste 34812.5 Conclusion 350References 35013 Applications of Membrane Contactors for Water Treatment 361Ashish Kapoor, Elangovan Poonguzhali, Nanditha Dayanandan and Sivaraman Prabhakar13.1 Introduction 36213.2 Characteristics of Membrane Contactors 36213.3 Membrane Module Configurations 36513.4 Mathematical Aspects of Membrane Contactors 36613.5 Advantages and Limitations of Membrane Contactors 36713.5.1 Advantages 36713.5.1.1 High Interfacial Contact 36813.5.1.2 Absence of Flooding and Loading 36813.5.1.3 Minimization of Back Mixing and Emulsification 36813.5.1.4 Freedom for Solvent Selection 36813.5.1.5 Reduction in Solvent Inventory 36813.5.1.6 Modularity 36913.5.2 Limitations 36913.6 Membrane Contactors as Alternatives to Conventional Unit Operations 37013.6.1 Liquid-Liquid Extraction 37013.6.2 Membrane Distillation 37013.6.3 Osmotic Distillation 37213.6.4 Membrane Crystallization 37213.6.5 Membrane Emulsification 37213.6.6 Supported Liquid Membranes 37313.6.7 Membrane Bioreactors 37313.7 Applications 37413.7.1 Wastewater Treatment 37413.7.2 Metal Recovery From Aqueous Streams 37513.7.3 Desalination 37513.7.4 Concentration of Products in Food and Biotechnological Industries 37513.7.5 Gaseous Stream Treatment 37613.7.6 Energy Sector 37613.8 Conclusions and Future Prospects 377References 37814 Removal of Sulfates From Wastewater 383Ankita Dhillon, Rekha Sharma and Dinesh Kumar14.1 Introduction 38314.2 Effect of Sulfate Contamination on Human Health 38414.3 Groundwater Distribution of Sulfate 38414.4 Traditional Methods for Sulfate Removal 38514.4.1 Treatment With Lime 38514.4.2 Treatment With Limestone 38614.4.3 Wetlands 38714.5 Modern Day’s Technique for Sulfate Removal 38714.5.1 Nanofiltration 38714.5.2 Electrocoagulation 38814.5.3 Precipitation Methods 38914.5.4 Adsorption 39114.5.5 Ion Exchange 39214.5.6 Biological Treatment 39314.5.7 Removal of Sulfate by Crystallization 39414.6 Conclusions and Future Perspective 394Acknowledgment 395References 39515 Risk Assessment on Human Health With Effect of Heavy Metals 401Athar Hussain, Manjeeta Priyadarshi, Fazil Qureshi and Salman Ahmed15.1 Introduction 40215.2 Toxic Effects Heavy Metals on Human Health 40315.3 Biomarkers and Bio-Indicators for Evaluation of Heavy Metal Contamination 40615.3.1 Hazard Quotient 40715.3.2 Transfer Factor 40715.3.3 Daily Intake of Metal 40815.3.4 The Bioaccumulation Factor 40915.3.5 Translocation Factor 41015.3.6 Enrichment Factor 41015.3.7 Metal Pollution Index 41215.3.8 Health Risk Index 41215.3.9 Pollution Load Index 41215.3.10 Index of Geo-Accumulation 41315.3.11 Potential Risk Index 41315.3.12 Exposure Assessment 41415.3.13 Carcinogenic Risk 415References 41716 Water Quality Monitoring and Management: Importance, Applications, and Analysis 421Abhinav Srivastava and V.P. Sharma16.1 Qualitative Analysis: An Introduction to Basic Concept 42216.2 Significant Applications of Qualitative Analysis 42216.2.1 Water Quality 42416.2.2 Water Quality Index 42616.3 Qualitative Analysis of Water 42716.3.1 Sampling Procedure 42816.3.2 Sample Transportation and Preservation 42916.3.3 Some Important Physico-Chemical Parameters of Water Quality 43116.4 Existing Water Quality Standards 43416.5 Quality Assurance and Quality Control 43516.6 Conclusions 437References 43717 Water Quality Standards 441Hosam M. Saleh and Amal I. Hassan17.1 Introduction 44217.2 Chemical Standards for Water Quality 44317.2.1 Physical Standards 44317.2.2 Chemical Standards for Salt Water Quality 44517.2.3 Biological Standards 44617.2.4 Radiation Standards 44717.2.5 Wastewater and Water Quality 44717.3 Inorganic Substances and Their Effect on Palatability and Household Uses 45117.3.1 Aluminum 45117.3.2 Calcium 45117.3.3 Magnesium 45217.3.4 Chlorides 45217.4 The Philosophy of Setting Standards for Drinking Water (Proportions and Concentrations of Water Components) 45717.5 Detection of Polychlorinated Biphenyls 45817.6 The Future Development of Water Analysis 45917.7 Conclusion 460References 46018 Qualitative and Quantitative Analysis of Water 469Amita Chaudhary, Ankur Dwivedi and Ashok N Bhaskarwar18.1 Introduction 46918.2 Sources of Water 47018.3 Water Quality 47218.3.1 Physical Parameters 47218.3.2 Chemical Parameters 47218.3.3 Biological Parameters 47418.3.4 Water Quality Index 47418.4 Factors Affecting the Quality of Surface Water 47618.5 Quantitative Analysis of the Organic Content of the Wastewater 47718.5.1 Biochemical Oxygen Demand 47718.5.1.1 DO Profile Curve in BOD Test 47818.5.1.2 Significance of BOD Test 47918.5.1.3 Nitrification in BOD Test 48018.5.2 Chemical Oxygen Demand 48018.5.3 Theoretical Oxygen Demand (ThOD) 48218.6 Treatment of Wastewater 48318.6.1 Primary Treatment Method 48418.6.1.1 Pre-Aeration 48418.6.1.2 Flocculation 48418.6.2 Secondary Treatment 48518.6.2.1 Aerobic Biological Process 48518.6.2.2 Anaerobic Biological Treatment 48518.6.2.3 Activated Sludge Process 48718.6.3 Tertiary Treatment 48818.6.3.1 Nutrients Removal 48818.6.3.2 Phosphorus Removal 49018.6.3.3 Ion-Exchange Process 49018.6.3.4 Membrane Process 49118.6.3.5 Disinfection 49118.6.3.6 Coagulation 49118.7 Instrumental Analysis of Wastewater Parameters 49218.7.1 Hardness 49218.7.2 Alkalinity 49218.7.3 pH 49318.7.4 Turbidity 49318.7.5 Total Dissolved Solids 49418.7.6 Total Organic Carbon 49418.7.7 Color 49518.7.8 Atomic Absorption Spectroscopy 49518.7.9 Inductive Coupled Plasma–Mass Spectroscopy 49618.7.10 Gas Chromatography With Mass Spectroscopy 49718.8 Methods for Qualitative Determination of Water 49718.8.1 Weight Loss Method 49718.8.2 Karl Fischer Method 49818.8.3 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy Method 49918.8.4 Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy Method 49918.9 Conclusion 500References 50019 Nanofluids for Water Treatment 503Charles Oluwaseun Adetunji, Wilson Nwankwo, Olusola Olaleye, Olanrewaju Akinseye, Temitope Popoola and Mohd Imran Ahamed19.1 Introduction 50419.2 Types of Nanofluids Used in the Treatment of Water 50519.2.1 Zero-Valent Metal Nanoparticles 50519.2.1.1 Silver Nanoparticles (AgNPs) 50519.2.1.2 Iron Nanoparticles 50619.2.1.3 Zinc Nanoparticles 50719.2.2 Metal Oxides Nanoparticles 50719.2.2.1 Tin Dioxide (TiO2) Nanoparticles 50719.2.2.2 Zinc Oxide Nanoparticles (ZnO NPs) 50819.2.2.3 Iron Oxides Nanoparticles 50819.2.3 Carbon Nanotubes 50919.2.4 Nanocomposite Membranes 50919.2.5 Modes of Action of These Nanofluids 50919.2.5.1 Carbon-Based Nano-Adsorbents (CNTs) for Organic Expulsion 50919.2.5.2 Heavy Metal Removal 51019.2.5.3 Metal-Based Nano-Adsorbents 51019.2.5.4 Polymeric Nano-Adsorbents 51119.2.5.5 Nanofiber Membranes 51119.2.5.6 Some Applications of Nanofluids in the Treatment of Water 51219.2.5.7 Informatics and AI Nanofluid-Enhanced Water Treatment 51319.3 Conclusion and Recommendation to Knowledge 516References 516Index 525