Francisco Castro Rego, Professor of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.Stephen C. Bunting, Emeritus Professor of Landscape and Rangeland Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Eva Kristina Strand, Professor of Landscape Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Paulo Godinho-Ferreira, Senior Researcher of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and Institute for Agrarian and Veterinarian Research, Lisbon, Portugal.

• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Concepts and Approaches in Landscape Ecology 11.1 The Historical Development of Landscape Ecology as a Science 11.2 Hierarchical Levels in Ecology 61.3 The Spatial Hierarchy of Land 71.4 Fundamental Concepts: Landscape Scale and Size, Pattern, Process, and Change 91.5 The Representation of the Landscape and its Elements 13Key Points 20Endnotes 202 Points as Landscape Elements 252.1 The Different Patterns 252.2 Distance Methods to Detect Pattern 292.3 Quadrat Analysis to Detect Pattern 312.4 Consideration of Scale in Nearest-Neighbor Analyses 352.5 Consideration of Scale in Quadrat Analyses 40Key Points 44Endnotes 443 Linear Elements and Networks 473.1 The Linear Features and Corridors in the Landscape 473.2 Curvilinearity and Fractal Analysis 503.3 Linear Density of Networks 573.4 Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 603.5 Analysis of the Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 623.6 A Study of Linear Features on the European Scale 653.7 The Topology of the Networks 663.8 Network Connectivity 683.9 Connectivity Indices Based on Topological Distances between Patches (Nodes) 72Key Points 77Endnotes 784 Patches and Their Interactions 814.1 The Importance of Patch Size for Species Diversity 814.2 The Importance of Patch Edge and Shape 864.3 The Measurement of Patch Size and Perimeter 884.4 Quantifying Patch Shape 904.5 An Example for the Use of Perimeter–Area Relationships 924.6 Patch Interior and Edge 944.7 Interaction between Patches and the Theory of Island Biogeography 994.8 Interaction between Patches and Populations: The Concept of Metapopulation 1024.9 Estimating the Interaction between Patches by the Distance and Size of Neighbors 1044.10 An Example of the Use of the Gravity Model 108Key Points 111Endnotes 1115 The Vertical Dimension of Landscapes 1155.1 The Importance of Elevation Illustrated for Birds in the Macaronesian Islands 1155.2 Montane Islands 1205.3 The Vertical Dimension in Aquatic Systems 1225.4 The Vertical Structure of Vegetation and Species Diversity 122Key Points 126Endnotes 1266 Movements through Landscapes 1296.1 Percolation Theory 1296.2 Contagion Analysis and Percolation 1336.3 Resistance Surfaces 1376.4 Example of Percolation Movements through Landscapes 140Key Points 142Endnotes 1437 Landscape Composition, Diversity, and Habitat Selection 1457.1 Measurements of Diversity 1457.2 Species Diversity of Habitats and Landscapes 1507.3 The Habitat Use Diversity of a Species 1557.4 The Relationship between the Species Diversity of a Landscape and the Habitat Use Diversity of the Species 1577.5 Habitat Selection 1617.6 Landscape Composition and Diversity 169Key Points 170Endnotes 1718 Landscape Pattern: Composition and Configuration 1738.1 Composition and Configuration Represent Different Aspects of Landscapes 1738.2 Configuration Assessed by Patch Numbers, Sizes, Perimeters, and Shapes 1758.3 Edge Contrast 1788.4 Configuration Assessed by Types of Cell Adjacencies 1818.5 Combination of Landscape Pattern Indices 1868.6 Example of Uses of Pattern and Configuration Metrics to Compare Landscapes 189Key Points 191Endnotes 1919 Landscape Dynamics 1939.1 The Dynamic Nature of Landscapes: Disturbances and Equilibrium 1939.2 The Two-State Landscapes 1959.3 Rotating Landscapes 1989.4 Indices for the Dynamics and Randomness of Landscape Changes 2029.5 Measuring the Complexity of Landscape Change 2049.6 Simulating Changes in Landscape Composition 2069.7 Conditional Landscape Changes 211Key Points 216Endnotes 21710 From Landscape Ecology to Landscape Management 21910.1 Natural Processes and Landscape Management 21910.2 Transition Matrices as the Mathematical Framework 22310.3 Management of Landscape Composition and the Transition Matrix Model 22610.4 The Use of Transition Matrices to Incorporate Changes in Disturbance Regimes and/or Management Activities 22810.5 Combining Spatial and Temporal Analysis in Transition Models 238Key Points 252Endnotes 252Appendix A Description of Notation Used in Formulae and Metrics 255Index 263

Francisco Castro Rego, Professor of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.Stephen C. Bunting, Emeritus Professor of Landscape and Rangeland Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Eva Kristina Strand, Professor of Landscape Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Paulo Godinho-Ferreira, Senior Researcher of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and Institute for Agrarian and Veterinarian Research, Lisbon, Portugal.

• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Concepts and Approaches in Landscape Ecology 11.1 The Historical Development of Landscape Ecology as a Science 11.2 Hierarchical Levels in Ecology 61.3 The Spatial Hierarchy of Land 71.4 Fundamental Concepts: Landscape Scale and Size, Pattern, Process, and Change 91.5 The Representation of the Landscape and its Elements 13Key Points 20Endnotes 202 Points as Landscape Elements 252.1 The Different Patterns 252.2 Distance Methods to Detect Pattern 292.3 Quadrat Analysis to Detect Pattern 312.4 Consideration of Scale in Nearest-Neighbor Analyses 352.5 Consideration of Scale in Quadrat Analyses 40Key Points 44Endnotes 443 Linear Elements and Networks 473.1 The Linear Features and Corridors in the Landscape 473.2 Curvilinearity and Fractal Analysis 503.3 Linear Density of Networks 573.4 Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 603.5 Analysis of the Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 623.6 A Study of Linear Features on the European Scale 653.7 The Topology of the Networks 663.8 Network Connectivity 683.9 Connectivity Indices Based on Topological Distances between Patches (Nodes) 72Key Points 77Endnotes 784 Patches and Their Interactions 814.1 The Importance of Patch Size for Species Diversity 814.2 The Importance of Patch Edge and Shape 864.3 The Measurement of Patch Size and Perimeter 884.4 Quantifying Patch Shape 904.5 An Example for the Use of Perimeter–Area Relationships 924.6 Patch Interior and Edge 944.7 Interaction between Patches and the Theory of Island Biogeography 994.8 Interaction between Patches and Populations: The Concept of Metapopulation 1024.9 Estimating the Interaction between Patches by the Distance and Size of Neighbors 1044.10 An Example of the Use of the Gravity Model 108Key Points 111Endnotes 1115 The Vertical Dimension of Landscapes 1155.1 The Importance of Elevation Illustrated for Birds in the Macaronesian Islands 1155.2 Montane Islands 1205.3 The Vertical Dimension in Aquatic Systems 1225.4 The Vertical Structure of Vegetation and Species Diversity 122Key Points 126Endnotes 1266 Movements through Landscapes 1296.1 Percolation Theory 1296.2 Contagion Analysis and Percolation 1336.3 Resistance Surfaces 1376.4 Example of Percolation Movements through Landscapes 140Key Points 142Endnotes 1437 Landscape Composition, Diversity, and Habitat Selection 1457.1 Measurements of Diversity 1457.2 Species Diversity of Habitats and Landscapes 1507.3 The Habitat Use Diversity of a Species 1557.4 The Relationship between the Species Diversity of a Landscape and the Habitat Use Diversity of the Species 1577.5 Habitat Selection 1617.6 Landscape Composition and Diversity 169Key Points 170Endnotes 1718 Landscape Pattern: Composition and Configuration 1738.1 Composition and Configuration Represent Different Aspects of Landscapes 1738.2 Configuration Assessed by Patch Numbers, Sizes, Perimeters, and Shapes 1758.3 Edge Contrast 1788.4 Configuration Assessed by Types of Cell Adjacencies 1818.5 Combination of Landscape Pattern Indices 1868.6 Example of Uses of Pattern and Configuration Metrics to Compare Landscapes 189Key Points 191Endnotes 1919 Landscape Dynamics 1939.1 The Dynamic Nature of Landscapes: Disturbances and Equilibrium 1939.2 The Two-State Landscapes 1959.3 Rotating Landscapes 1989.4 Indices for the Dynamics and Randomness of Landscape Changes 2029.5 Measuring the Complexity of Landscape Change 2049.6 Simulating Changes in Landscape Composition 2069.7 Conditional Landscape Changes 211Key Points 216Endnotes 21710 From Landscape Ecology to Landscape Management 21910.1 Natural Processes and Landscape Management 21910.2 Transition Matrices as the Mathematical Framework 22310.3 Management of Landscape Composition and the Transition Matrix Model 22610.4 The Use of Transition Matrices to Incorporate Changes in Disturbance Regimes and/or Management Activities 22810.5 Combining Spatial and Temporal Analysis in Transition Models 238Key Points 252Endnotes 252Appendix A Description of Notation Used in Formulae and Metrics 255Index 263

Francisco Castro Rego, Professor of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and School of Agriculture, University of Lisbon, Lisbon, Portugal.Stephen C. Bunting, Emeritus Professor of Landscape and Rangeland Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Eva Kristina Strand, Professor of Landscape Ecology, College of Natural Resources, University of Idaho, Moscow, ID, USA.Paulo Godinho-Ferreira, Senior Researcher of Landscape Ecology, Centre for Applied Ecology "Prof. Baeta Neves", InBio and Institute for Agrarian and Veterinarian Research, Lisbon, Portugal.

• Foreword xiPreface xiii1 Concepts and Approaches in Landscape Ecology 11.1 The Historical Development of Landscape Ecology as a Science 11.2 Hierarchical Levels in Ecology 61.3 The Spatial Hierarchy of Land 71.4 Fundamental Concepts: Landscape Scale and Size, Pattern, Process, and Change 91.5 The Representation of the Landscape and its Elements 13Key Points 20Endnotes 202 Points as Landscape Elements 252.1 The Different Patterns 252.2 Distance Methods to Detect Pattern 292.3 Quadrat Analysis to Detect Pattern 312.4 Consideration of Scale in Nearest-Neighbor Analyses 352.5 Consideration of Scale in Quadrat Analyses 40Key Points 44Endnotes 443 Linear Elements and Networks 473.1 The Linear Features and Corridors in the Landscape 473.2 Curvilinearity and Fractal Analysis 503.3 Linear Density of Networks 573.4 Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 603.5 Analysis of the Spatial Distribution of Linear Networks 623.6 A Study of Linear Features on the European Scale 653.7 The Topology of the Networks 663.8 Network Connectivity 683.9 Connectivity Indices Based on Topological Distances between Patches (Nodes) 72Key Points 77Endnotes 784 Patches and Their Interactions 814.1 The Importance of Patch Size for Species Diversity 814.2 The Importance of Patch Edge and Shape 864.3 The Measurement of Patch Size and Perimeter 884.4 Quantifying Patch Shape 904.5 An Example for the Use of Perimeter–Area Relationships 924.6 Patch Interior and Edge 944.7 Interaction between Patches and the Theory of Island Biogeography 994.8 Interaction between Patches and Populations: The Concept of Metapopulation 1024.9 Estimating the Interaction between Patches by the Distance and Size of Neighbors 1044.10 An Example of the Use of the Gravity Model 108Key Points 111Endnotes 1115 The Vertical Dimension of Landscapes 1155.1 The Importance of Elevation Illustrated for Birds in the Macaronesian Islands 1155.2 Montane Islands 1205.3 The Vertical Dimension in Aquatic Systems 1225.4 The Vertical Structure of Vegetation and Species Diversity 122Key Points 126Endnotes 1266 Movements through Landscapes 1296.1 Percolation Theory 1296.2 Contagion Analysis and Percolation 1336.3 Resistance Surfaces 1376.4 Example of Percolation Movements through Landscapes 140Key Points 142Endnotes 1437 Landscape Composition, Diversity, and Habitat Selection 1457.1 Measurements of Diversity 1457.2 Species Diversity of Habitats and Landscapes 1507.3 The Habitat Use Diversity of a Species 1557.4 The Relationship between the Species Diversity of a Landscape and the Habitat Use Diversity of the Species 1577.5 Habitat Selection 1617.6 Landscape Composition and Diversity 169Key Points 170Endnotes 1718 Landscape Pattern: Composition and Configuration 1738.1 Composition and Configuration Represent Different Aspects of Landscapes 1738.2 Configuration Assessed by Patch Numbers, Sizes, Perimeters, and Shapes 1758.3 Edge Contrast 1788.4 Configuration Assessed by Types of Cell Adjacencies 1818.5 Combination of Landscape Pattern Indices 1868.6 Example of Uses of Pattern and Configuration Metrics to Compare Landscapes 189Key Points 191Endnotes 1919 Landscape Dynamics 1939.1 The Dynamic Nature of Landscapes: Disturbances and Equilibrium 1939.2 The Two-State Landscapes 1959.3 Rotating Landscapes 1989.4 Indices for the Dynamics and Randomness of Landscape Changes 2029.5 Measuring the Complexity of Landscape Change 2049.6 Simulating Changes in Landscape Composition 2069.7 Conditional Landscape Changes 211Key Points 216Endnotes 21710 From Landscape Ecology to Landscape Management 21910.1 Natural Processes and Landscape Management 21910.2 Transition Matrices as the Mathematical Framework 22310.3 Management of Landscape Composition and the Transition Matrix Model 22610.4 The Use of Transition Matrices to Incorporate Changes in Disturbance Regimes and/or Management Activities 22810.5 Combining Spatial and Temporal Analysis in Transition Models 238Key Points 252Endnotes 252Appendix A Description of Notation Used in Formulae and Metrics 255Index 263