Antenna and Sensor Technologies in Modern Medical Applications

YAHYA RAHMAT-SAMII, PHD, is a Distinguished Professor, holder of the Northrop-Grumman Chair in Electromagnetics at the University of California, Los Angeles, member of the US National Academy of Engineering, Fellow of the IEEE, URSI, ACES, AMTA and EMA, recipient of the IEEE Electromagetnics Award and Third Millennium Medal, UCLA Distinguished Teaching Award, URSI Booker Gold Medal and Ellis Island Medal of Honor. ERDEM TOPSAKAL, PHD, is a tenured full Professor and Electrical and Computer Engineering Department Chair at Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia.

• List of Contributors xvii1 Introduction 1Yahya Rahmat-Samii and Erdem Topsakal2 Ultraflexible Electrotextile Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) Radio-Frequency Coils 11Daisong Zhang and Yahya Rahmat-Samii2.1 Introduction to MRI and the Basic Antenna Considerations 112.2 Motivations, Challenges, and Strategies for MRI RF Coil Design 152.2.1 Design Motivations and Challenges for MRI RF Coils 152.2.2 Design Strategies and Roadmap of MRI RF Coils 182.3 Selection, Fabrication, and Characterization of Electrotextiles for RF Coils 202.3.1 Selection and Fabrication of Flexible Material Candidate 202.3.2 Characterization of Electrotextiles 222.4 Design of Single-Element Flexible RF Coil 262.4.1 RF Coil Element Design with a Rigid Material 262.4.2 RF Coil Element Design with Electrotextile Cloth 302.4.3 RF Coil Element Design with Tunable Circuitry 312.5 Design of Flexible RF Coil Array and System Integration with MRI Scanner 312.5.1 RF Coil Array Design and Characterization 322.5.2 RF Coil Array System Integration with MRI Scanner 332.6 Characterization of RF Coil Array 342.6.1 Characterization of RF Coil Array System with Phantom 352.6.2 Characterization of RF Coil Array System with Cadaver 382.7 Conclusion 38References 383 Wearable Sensors for Motion Capture 43Vigyanshu Mishra and Asimina Kiourti3.1 Introduction 433.2 The Promise of Motion Capture 453.2.1 Healthcare 453.2.2 Sports 473.2.3 Human–Machine Interfaces 473.2.4 Animation/Movies 483.2.5 Biomedical Research 483.3 Motion Capture in Contrived Settings 493.3.1 Camera-Based Motion Capture Laboratory 493.3.2 Electromagnetics-Based Sensors 523.3.2.1 RADAR Based 523.3.2.2 Wi-Fi Based 553.3.2.3 RFID Based 573.3.3 Magnetic Motion Capture System 593.3.4 Imaging Methods 603.3.5 Additional Sensors/Tools 603.3.5.1 Goniometers 613.3.5.2 Force Plates 623.4 Wearable Motion Capture (Noncontrived Settings) 633.4.1 Inertial Measurement Units (IMUs) 633.4.2 Bending/Deformation Sensors 653.4.2.1 Strain Based 653.4.2.2 Fiber Optics Based 683.4.3 Time-of-Flight (TOF) Sensors 703.4.3.1 Acoustic Based 703.4.3.2 Radio Based 713.4.4 Received Signal Strength-based Sensors 733.4.4.1 Antenna Based 733.4.4.2 Magnetoinductive Sensors/Electrically Small Loop Antennas 743.5 Conclusion 78References 824 Antennas and Wireless Power Transfer for Brain-Implantable Sensors 91Leena Ukkonen, Lauri Sydänheimo, Toni Björninen and Shubin Ma4.1 Introduction 914.2 Implantable Antennas for Wireless Biomedical Devices 924.3 Wireless Power Transfer Techniques for Implantable Devices 954.3.1 Inductive Power Transfer 954.3.2 Ultrasonic Power Transfer 974.3.3 Near-Field Capacitive Power Transfer 984.3.4 Far-Field Power Transfer 994.3.5 Computing the Fundamental Performance Indicators of Near-Field WPT Systems Using Two-Port Network Approach 1004.4 Human Body Models for Implantable Antenna Development 1074.4.1 Comparison of Human Head Phantoms with Different Complexities for Intracranial Implantable Antenna Development 1104.5 Wirelessly Powered Intracranial Pressure Sensing System Integrating Near- and Far-Field Antennas 1154.5.1 Far-Field Antenna for Data Transmission 1164.5.2 Antenna for Near-Field Wireless Power Transfer 1204.6 Far-Field RFID Antennas for Intracranial Wireless Communication 1234.6.1 Split Ring Resonator-Based Spatially Distributed Implantable Antenna System 1234.6.2 LC-Tank-Based Miniature Implantable RFID Antenna 1274.6.3 Antenna Prototype and Wireless Measurement 1324.7 Conclusion 135References 1365 In Vitro and In Vivo Testing of Implantable Antennas 145Ryan B. Green, Mary V. Smith and Erdem Topsakal5.1 Introduction 1455.2 Antenna Materials 1465.2.1 Biocompatibility 1465.2.2 Miniaturization 1495.2.3 Biocompatible Conductors and Thin Films 1505.2.4 Ports and Cables 1535.3 Bench Top Testing 1545.3.1 Ex Vivo Tissues 1545.3.2 In Vitro Gels 1545.3.2.1 Mixture and Characterization of Skin-Mimicking Material 1565.3.2.2 Mixture and Characterization of Adipose-Mimicking Material 1645.3.2.3 Mixture and Characterization of Muscle-Mimicking Material 1665.4 In Vivo Testing 1715.4.1 Different Animal Models for Different Frequency Bands 1745.4.2 Dielectric Mismatch 1775.4.3 Practical Testing Concerns 1815.5 Conclusion 182Acknowledgment 183References 1836 Wireless Localization for a Capsule Endoscopy: Techniques and Solutions 191Yongxin Guo and Guoliang Shao6.1 Introduction 1916.1.1 Visual-based Localization Method 1946.1.2 Radio-frequency Localization 1966.1.3 Microwave Imaging 1986.1.4 Magnetic Localization 1996.2 Static Magnetic Localization 2016.2.1 Model of the Target Magnet 2026.2.2 Noise Cancellation and Sensor Calibration 2056.2.3 Solving the Inverse Problem 2076.2.4 Sensors Distribution 2126.2.5 Conclusion of the Static Magnetic Localization 2156.3 Modulated Magnetic Localization 2156.3.1 Static Field Modulation 2156.3.2 Inductive-based Magnetic Localization 2166.4 Conclusion 225References 2277 Study on Channel Characteristics and Performance of Liver-Implanted Wireless Communications 235Pongphan Leelatien, Koichi Ito and Kazuyuki Saito7.1 Introduction 2357.2 Study of In-Body Communications at Liver Area Using Simplified Multilayer Phantoms 2387.2.1 UWB Antenna 2397.2.2 Measurement Setup 2397.2.3 Simulation Setup 2397.2.4 Experimental and Numerical Results 2437.2.4.1 S11 and S22 Results 2437.2.4.2 S21 Results 2447.3 Numerical Study of Liver-Implanted Channel Characteristics Using Digital Human Models 2447.3.1 Simulation Setup 2457.3.2 Return Loss Results 2467.3.3 S21 Results 2487.3.4 Path Loss Results 2507.4 The Influence of Antenna Misalignment 2527.4.1 Simulation Setup 2527.4.2 Study Results and Analysis 2527.5 Channel Characteristics for the In- to Off-Body Scenario 2567.5.1 Simulation Setup 2567.5.2 Return Loss Results 2577.5.3 Path Loss Results for the In- to Off-Body Scenario 2587.6 System Performance Evaluation 2607.6.1 Link Budget Evaluation and Analysis 2607.6.1.1 In- to On-Body Scenario 2627.6.1.2 In- to Off-Body Scenario 2637.7 Electromagnetic Compatibility Evaluations 2637.7.1 Analysis 2657.7.2 SAR Results 2657.8 Conclusions 268References 2708 High-Efficiency Multicoil Wireless Power and Data Transfer for Biomedical Implants and Neuroprosthetics 277Manjunath Machnoor and Gianluca Lazzi8.1 Introduction 2778.2 Multicoil System to Achieve Efficient Power Transfer 2798.2.1 Two-Coil WPT Systems 2808.2.2 Conventional Three-Coil WPT System 2848.2.3 Performance of the Two- and Three-Coil Systems as a Function of RX Coil Size 2868.2.4 Description of the Proposed Three-Coil System 2878.2.5 Efficient Use of Implanted Wire of the Coil in a Small RX Three-Coil System 2928.2.5.1 Circuit Technique Description 2928.2.5.2 Testing the Technique: Comparison 1 2928.2.6 Reducing Power Dissipation in the Implanted RX 2938.2.6.1 Circuit Technique Description 2938.2.6.2 Testing the Technique: Comparison 2 2958.2.7 Design Procedure and the Advantages of the Proposed Three-Coil System Over the Conventional Three-Coil System Design 2988.2.7.1 Design Procedure 2988.2.7.2 Tolerance to Load Changes 2998.2.7.3 Advantage 2: Reducing Currents in the Secondary Coil 3018.2.7.4 K12 and Cm for Optimization of System Performance: Layout Design Advantages 3028.2.7.5 Effects of Tissue and Tissue Parameters on the Power Delivery 3038.2.8 Experiments: Measurements and Results 3048.3 Justifying the Advantages of Using Multicoil WPT Systems for Data Transfer 3068.4 Conclusion 312References 3139 Wireless Drug Delivery Devices 319Yang Hao, Ahsan Noor Khan, Alexey Ermakov and Gleb Sukhorukov9.1 Introduction 3199.2 Active and Passive Drug Delivery Devices 3209.3 Capsule-Mediated Active Drug Delivery Process 3209.4 Transdermal and Implantable Devices 3229.5 Micro- and Nanoscale Devices 3229.6 Packaging and Integration of Components 3239.7 Materials for Drug Delivery Devices 3249.8 Organ-Specific Drug Delivery Devices 3249.9 Wireless Communication for Drug Delivery Devices 3259.9.1 Microchips-Mediated Drug Delivery Devices 3269.9.2 Micropumps and Microvalves-Mediated Drug Delivery Devices 3289.9.3 Microrobots-Mediated Drug Delivery 3319.9.4 Material-Mediated Drug Delivery 3329.10 Carrier Types for Drug Delivery 335References 33810 Minimally Invasive Microwave Ablation Antennas 345Hung Luyen, Yahya Mohtashami, James F. Sawicki, Susan C. Hagness and Nader Behdad10.1 Introduction 34510.1.1 Overview of Microwave Ablation Therapy 34510.1.2 Historical Development and Current Landscape of Research on MWA Antennas 34710.1.3 Impact of Frequency on MWA Performance 35210.1.4 Focus of this Chapter 35310.2 Toward Length Reduction for Ablation Antennas: Demonstration of Higher Frequency Microwave Ablation 35410.2.1 Electromagnetic Evaluation of Microwave Ablation Antennas Operating in the 1.9–18-GHz Range 35410.2.2 Performance of Higher Frequency Microwave Ablation in the Presence of Perfusion 35510.3 Reduced-Diameter, Balun-Equipped Microwave Ablation Antenna Designs 35910.3.1 Antennas with Conventional Coaxial Baluns Implemented on Air-Filled Coax Sections 36110.3.2 Coax-Fed Antenna with a Tapered Slot Balun 36410.4 Balun-Free Microwave Ablation Antenna Designs 36710.4.1 High-Input Impedance Helical Monopole with an Integrated Impedance-Matching Section 36810.4.2 Low-Input Impedance Helical Dipole Design 37310.5 Toward More Flexibility and Customization in Microwave Ablation Treatment 37710.5.1 Ex Vivo Performance of a Flexible Microwave Ablation Antenna 37710.5.2 Hybrid Slot/Monopole Antenna with Directional Heating Patterns 38010.5.3 Non-Coaxial-Based Microwave Ablation Antennas with Symmetric and Asymmetric Heating Patterns 38310.6 Conclusions 387References 38911 Inkjet-/3D-/4D-Printed Nanotechnology-Enabled Radar, Sensing, and RFID Modules for Internet of Things, “Smart Skin,” and “Zero Power” Medical Applications 399Manos M. Tentzeris, Aline Eid, Tong-Hong Lin, Jimmy G.D. Hester, Yepu Cui, Ajibayo Adeyeye, Bijan Tehrani and Syed A. Nauroze11.1 Introduction 39911.2 Batteryless “Green” Powering Schemes for Perpetual Wearables 40011.2.1 Wearable Rectennas Compatible with Legacy Wireless Networks 40111.2.2 New Opportunities for Power Harvesting from 5G Cellular Networks 40211.2.2.1 28-GHz Rotman Lens-Based Energy-Harvesting System 40211.2.2.2 Integration of W-Band Zero-Bias Diode for Harvesting Applications 40411.3 Additive Manufacturing Technologies for Low-Cost, Compact, and Wearable System 40611.3.1 Wireless System Packaging for On-Body Devices 40611.3.2 Energy-Autonomous System-on-Package Designs 40711.4 Energy-Autonomous Communications for On-Body Sensing Networks 40911.4.1 Energy-Autonomous Long-Range Wearable Sensor Networks 40911.4.2 Radar and Backscatter Communications 41411.4.2.1 FMCW Radar-Enabled Localizable Millimeter-Wave RFID 41511.4.3 Flexible and Deployable 4D Origami-Inspired “Smart Walls” for EMI Shielding and Communication Applications 41611.5 Low-Power Sensors for Wearable Wireless Sensing Systems 42211.5.1 Carbon-Nanomaterials-Based Fully Inkjet-Printed Gas Sensors 42211.5.2 Energy-Autonomous Micropump System for Wearable and IoT Microfluidic Sensing Devices 42511.5.3 Fully Inkjet-Printed Encodable Flexible Microfluidic Chipless RFID Sensor 42811.6 Conclusion 431References 43112 High-Density Electronic Integration for Wearable Sensing 435Shubhendu Bhardwaj, Raj Pulugurtha and John L. Volakis12.1 Introduction 43512.2 Brief Comparison of Flexible Conductor Technologies 43512.3 Review and History of E-Fiber-Based RF Technology 43712.4 Fabrication of Conductive Flexile E-Fiber Surfaces and Loss Performance 43812.5 Antennas Using Embroidery-Based Conductive Surfaces 44112.5.1 Patch Antenna for Wireless Power Transfer and Harvesting 44212.5.2 Body-Worn Antenna for Wireless Communication 44312.6 Circuits and Systems Using Embroidery-Based Conductive Surfaces 44512.6.1 Far-Field Radio-Frequency Power Collection System on Clothing 44512.6.2 Near-Zone Power Collection Using Fabric-Integrated Antennas 44812.7 Voltage-Controlled Oscillator for Wound-Sensing Applications 44912.8 High-Density Integration 45112.8.1 Interconnect Features on Laminate Substrates 45112.8.2 Interconnects on Flex Substrates 45412.8.3 Device Assembly 45512.8.4 3D Packaging 45712.8.5 Applications of High-Density Packaging in RF and Sensing 45912.8.6 High-Density RF Flex Packaging 46112.8.7 Hybrid Flex Sensor-Processing-Communication Systems 462References 46213 Coupling-Independent Sensing Systems with Fully Passive Sensors 469Siavash Kananian, George Alexopoulos and Ada Poon13.1 Introduction 46913.2 Forced vs. Self-Oscillating Near-Field Readout 47513.3 Readout Techniques 47713.3.1 Forced Oscillation Techniques with Nonresonant Primary 47713.3.2 Forced Oscillation Techniques with Resonant Primary 48613.3.3 Self-Oscillating Techniques 49813.4 Comparison of the State of the Art 50713.5 Conclusion 516References 51714 Wireless and Wearable Biomarker Analysis 523Shuyu Lin, Bo Wang, Ryan Shih and Sam Emaminejad14.1 Introduction 52314.2 Sweat-Based Biomarkers 52414.2.1 Metabolites 52414.2.2 Electrolytes 52514.2.3 Steroids 52514.2.4 Proteins 52614.2.5 Xenobiotics 52614.3 Wearable Chemical Sensing Interfaces 52714.3.1 Electroenzymatic Sensors 52814.3.2 Ion-selective Sensing Interfaces 53014.3.3 Bioaffinity-based Sensors 53114.3.4 Synthetic Receptor-based Chemical Sensors 53214.3.5 Recognition Element-free Sensors 53314.4 Biofluid Accessibility 53314.5 Microfluidic Interfaces 53414.5.1 Types of Microfluidic Interfaces 53514.5.2 Biofluid Manipulation in Microfluidic Interfaces 53614.6 Electronic and Wireless Integration 538References 539Appendix A Antennas and Sensors for Medical Applications: A Representative Literature Review 547Lingnan Song and Yahya Rahmat-SamiiIndex 585

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