NIGEL COOK, Jorvik Food and Environmental Virology Ltd., York, UK. He has researched foodborne viruses – their transmission, detection, and control – for over 30 years. He has participated in several international expert committees, and standardisation activities, and holds a Guest Professorship at KU Leuven university, Belgium. DAVID RODRÍGUEZ-LÁZARO, Full Professor of Microbiology, Head of the Microbiology Division and Director of the Research Centre for Emerging Pathogens and Public Health at the University of Burgos (Spain), with more than 25 years of experience in the establishment of reliable strategies for detection and control of important food-borne pathogens from environmental sources and various types of foodstuffs. ARTUR RZEŻUTKA, is a senior scientist at the Department of Microbiology of Food and Feed of the National Veterinary Research Institute in Puławy, Poland. He is registered specialist in food hygiene with a broad experience in applied research in the field of foodborne and zoonotic virus detection, veterinary virology and parasitology. MARTIN D’AGOSTINO, Director, ViroSafety LTD, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK. Dr Martin D’Agostino is an independent consultant, with over 30 years’ experience in the detection, transmission and control of foodborne viruses. He provides specialist training and consultancy to industry, government and academia, and has contributed to major research, guidance and standards supporting food safety worldwide.

• Foreword ixPreface xiGlossary xiiiChapter 1 Introduction 1Viruses, the Microbial Enigma 2History of Food Virology 4Sources of Quoted Data 9Further Reading 9Chapter 2 The Foodborne Viruses 11Norovirus 12Hepatitis A Virus 16Hepatitis E Virus 20Occasionally or Potentially Foodborne Viruses 22Adenovirus 23Astrovirus 23Enterovirus 24Nipah Virus 25Parvovirus 25Rotavirus 25Sapovirus 27Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus 27Epidemiology of the Major Foodborne Viruses 27Norovirus 28Hepatitis A Virus 29Hepatitis E Virus 29Sources of Quoted Data 30Further Reading 31Chapter 3 How Does Food Become Contaminated? 33Routes of Contamination 35Extrinsic Contamination 35Intrinsic Contamination 40Outbreak Descriptions 40Outbreaks Caused by Extrinsic Contamination 42Outbreaks Caused by Intrinsic Contamination 46Sources of Quoted Data 47Further Reading 49Chapter 4 Detection 51Sample Treatment 52Sample Size 52Release of Viruses from the Foodstuff 53Removal of Food Substances 55Concentration of Viruses 56Nucleic Acid Extraction 58Detection Assay 59Electron Microscopy 59Cell Culture 60Immunodiagnostics 60Nucleic Acid Amplification 62Quantitation 67Interpretation of Results 71Controls for Sample Treatment 73Controls for the Assay 73Correctly Interpreting the Readout from a Real-Time PCR Instrument 76A Note Regarding High Ct Values 77The Issue of Infectivity 78Other Methods Utilizing Nucleic Acid Amplification 81Full References for Cited Standards 81Further Reading 82Chapter 5 Prevalence and Survival 83Prevalence in Foods and Food Production Settings 83Natural Persistence 86Survival on Food Contact Surfaces 87Survival in Water 88Survival on Crops 88Survival in Food 89Sources of Quoted Data 91Further Reading 94Chapter 6 Control of Contamination 95Elimination of Viruses from Food 95Chemical Disinfection 96Physical Disinfection 97Heat 97Non-Thermal Treatments 99Gamma Irradiation 99High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 99Ultraviolet Light (UV) 100Depuration 100Prevention of Contamination 101Procedural Controls for Prevention of Contamination of Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Produce 101HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) 104Procedural Controls for Prevention of Virus Contamination of Shellfish 105Vaccination 105Sources of Quoted Data 106Further Reading 107Chapter 7 Future Challenges 109Sources of Quoted Data 116Further Reading 116Index 000

NIGEL COOK, Jorvik Food and Environmental Virology Ltd., York, UK. He has researched foodborne viruses – their transmission, detection, and control – for over 30 years. He has participated in several international expert committees, and standardisation activities, and holds a Guest Professorship at KU Leuven university, Belgium. DAVID RODRÍGUEZ-LÁZARO, Full Professor of Microbiology, Head of the Microbiology Division and Director of the Research Centre for Emerging Pathogens and Public Health at the University of Burgos (Spain), with more than 25 years of experience in the establishment of reliable strategies for detection and control of important food-borne pathogens from environmental sources and various types of foodstuffs. ARTUR RZEŻUTKA, is a senior scientist at the Department of Microbiology of Food and Feed of the National Veterinary Research Institute in Puławy, Poland. He is registered specialist in food hygiene with a broad experience in applied research in the field of foodborne and zoonotic virus detection, veterinary virology and parasitology. MARTIN D’AGOSTINO, Director, ViroSafety LTD, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK. Dr Martin D’Agostino is an independent consultant, with over 30 years’ experience in the detection, transmission and control of foodborne viruses. He provides specialist training and consultancy to industry, government and academia, and has contributed to major research, guidance and standards supporting food safety worldwide.

• Foreword ixPreface xiGlossary xiiiChapter 1 Introduction 1Viruses, the Microbial Enigma 2History of Food Virology 4Sources of Quoted Data 9Further Reading 9Chapter 2 The Foodborne Viruses 11Norovirus 12Hepatitis A Virus 16Hepatitis E Virus 20Occasionally or Potentially Foodborne Viruses 22Adenovirus 23Astrovirus 23Enterovirus 24Nipah Virus 25Parvovirus 25Rotavirus 25Sapovirus 27Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus 27Epidemiology of the Major Foodborne Viruses 27Norovirus 28Hepatitis A Virus 29Hepatitis E Virus 29Sources of Quoted Data 30Further Reading 31Chapter 3 How Does Food Become Contaminated? 33Routes of Contamination 35Extrinsic Contamination 35Intrinsic Contamination 40Outbreak Descriptions 40Outbreaks Caused by Extrinsic Contamination 42Outbreaks Caused by Intrinsic Contamination 46Sources of Quoted Data 47Further Reading 49Chapter 4 Detection 51Sample Treatment 52Sample Size 52Release of Viruses from the Foodstuff 53Removal of Food Substances 55Concentration of Viruses 56Nucleic Acid Extraction 58Detection Assay 59Electron Microscopy 59Cell Culture 60Immunodiagnostics 60Nucleic Acid Amplification 62Quantitation 67Interpretation of Results 71Controls for Sample Treatment 73Controls for the Assay 73Correctly Interpreting the Readout from a Real-Time PCR Instrument 76A Note Regarding High Ct Values 77The Issue of Infectivity 78Other Methods Utilizing Nucleic Acid Amplification 81Full References for Cited Standards 81Further Reading 82Chapter 5 Prevalence and Survival 83Prevalence in Foods and Food Production Settings 83Natural Persistence 86Survival on Food Contact Surfaces 87Survival in Water 88Survival on Crops 88Survival in Food 89Sources of Quoted Data 91Further Reading 94Chapter 6 Control of Contamination 95Elimination of Viruses from Food 95Chemical Disinfection 96Physical Disinfection 97Heat 97Non-Thermal Treatments 99Gamma Irradiation 99High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 99Ultraviolet Light (UV) 100Depuration 100Prevention of Contamination 101Procedural Controls for Prevention of Contamination of Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Produce 101HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) 104Procedural Controls for Prevention of Virus Contamination of Shellfish 105Vaccination 105Sources of Quoted Data 106Further Reading 107Chapter 7 Future Challenges 109Sources of Quoted Data 116Further Reading 116Index 000

NIGEL COOK, Jorvik Food and Environmental Virology Ltd., York, UK. He has researched foodborne viruses – their transmission, detection, and control – for over 30 years. He has participated in several international expert committees, and standardisation activities, and holds a Guest Professorship at KU Leuven university, Belgium. DAVID RODRÍGUEZ-LÁZARO, Full Professor of Microbiology, Head of the Microbiology Division and Director of the Research Centre for Emerging Pathogens and Public Health at the University of Burgos (Spain), with more than 25 years of experience in the establishment of reliable strategies for detection and control of important food-borne pathogens from environmental sources and various types of foodstuffs. ARTUR RZEŻUTKA, is a senior scientist at the Department of Microbiology of Food and Feed of the National Veterinary Research Institute in Puławy, Poland. He is registered specialist in food hygiene with a broad experience in applied research in the field of foodborne and zoonotic virus detection, veterinary virology and parasitology. MARTIN D’AGOSTINO, Director, ViroSafety LTD, Stratford-upon-Avon, UK. Dr Martin D’Agostino is an independent consultant, with over 30 years’ experience in the detection, transmission and control of foodborne viruses. He provides specialist training and consultancy to industry, government and academia, and has contributed to major research, guidance and standards supporting food safety worldwide.

• Foreword ixPreface xiGlossary xiiiChapter 1 Introduction 1Viruses, the Microbial Enigma 2History of Food Virology 4Sources of Quoted Data 9Further Reading 9Chapter 2 The Foodborne Viruses 11Norovirus 12Hepatitis A Virus 16Hepatitis E Virus 20Occasionally or Potentially Foodborne Viruses 22Adenovirus 23Astrovirus 23Enterovirus 24Nipah Virus 25Parvovirus 25Rotavirus 25Sapovirus 27Tick-Borne Encephalitis Virus 27Epidemiology of the Major Foodborne Viruses 27Norovirus 28Hepatitis A Virus 29Hepatitis E Virus 29Sources of Quoted Data 30Further Reading 31Chapter 3 How Does Food Become Contaminated? 33Routes of Contamination 35Extrinsic Contamination 35Intrinsic Contamination 40Outbreak Descriptions 40Outbreaks Caused by Extrinsic Contamination 42Outbreaks Caused by Intrinsic Contamination 46Sources of Quoted Data 47Further Reading 49Chapter 4 Detection 51Sample Treatment 52Sample Size 52Release of Viruses from the Foodstuff 53Removal of Food Substances 55Concentration of Viruses 56Nucleic Acid Extraction 58Detection Assay 59Electron Microscopy 59Cell Culture 60Immunodiagnostics 60Nucleic Acid Amplification 62Quantitation 67Interpretation of Results 71Controls for Sample Treatment 73Controls for the Assay 73Correctly Interpreting the Readout from a Real-Time PCR Instrument 76A Note Regarding High Ct Values 77The Issue of Infectivity 78Other Methods Utilizing Nucleic Acid Amplification 81Full References for Cited Standards 81Further Reading 82Chapter 5 Prevalence and Survival 83Prevalence in Foods and Food Production Settings 83Natural Persistence 86Survival on Food Contact Surfaces 87Survival in Water 88Survival on Crops 88Survival in Food 89Sources of Quoted Data 91Further Reading 94Chapter 6 Control of Contamination 95Elimination of Viruses from Food 95Chemical Disinfection 96Physical Disinfection 97Heat 97Non-Thermal Treatments 99Gamma Irradiation 99High Hydrostatic Pressure (HHP) 99Ultraviolet Light (UV) 100Depuration 100Prevention of Contamination 101Procedural Controls for Prevention of Contamination of Fresh and Ready-to-Eat Produce 101HACCP (Hazard Analysis Critical Control Points) 104Procedural Controls for Prevention of Virus Contamination of Shellfish 105Vaccination 105Sources of Quoted Data 106Further Reading 107Chapter 7 Future Challenges 109Sources of Quoted Data 116Further Reading 116Index 000