Alternative Energy Resources

PAUL KRUGER is Professor Emeritus at Stanford University. He has worked in both industry and academia in the areas of energy and the environment.

• Foreword xxiPreface xxiii1 Human Ecology on Spaceship Earth 11.0 Introduction 11.01 Axiom 1 21.02 Axiom 2 51.03 Axiom 3 61.04 Philosophical Questions for the Quest 91.1 Development of Human Ecology 91.11 Major Ages in Human History 101.12 The Biosphere: ‘‘Spaceship Earth’’ 101.13 Limits to Growth 111.2 Summary 13References 142 The Unending Quest for Abundant Energy 162.0 Historical Perspective 162.1 Characteristics of an Industrial Nation 172.11 Flow of Abundant Energy 202.12 Capital and Income Energy Resources 222.2 Exponential Growth Dynamics 242.21 Linear Growth 242.22 Exponential Growth 252.23 Doubling Time 262.24 Exponential Growth Scenarios 272.25 Calculation of Growth Rates by Regression Analysis 292.3 Current Growth in Energy Consumption 312.31 Trends in Energy Consumption 312.32 Energy Intensity 332.33 Projections of Energy Intensities 352.34 Projections of Future Primary Energy Consumption 352.4 Summary 38References 383 The Fossil Fuel Era 403.0 Historical Perspective 403.01 Fossil Fuel Consumption in the United States since 1900 413.1 Fossil Fuels 423.11 Coal 433.12 Heating Value of Coal 433.13 Crude Oil 443.14 Natural Gas 453.2 Forecast of U.S. Energy Consumption through 2025 463.3 How Long Will Fossil Fuels Last? 483.31 Estimation of Fossil Fuel Reserves 483.32 The McKelvey Diagram 493.33 Production of a Finite Resource 523.34 The Logistic Production Curve Method 533.4 Growth of Fossil Fuel Demand for Generation of Electricity 593.5 Summary 60References 614 Sustainability of Energy Resources 634.0 Sustainable Economic Development 634.01 Indicators for Sustainable Energy Development 644.02 Sustainable Energy Supply 654.1 Sustainability of Electric Energy Demand 654.11 The Electronic Way of Life 664.12 A Continental Superconducting Grid 664.13 The Hydrogen Fuel Era 684.2 Natural Gas in Sustainable Energy Supply 694.21 Petrochemical Use of Natural Gas 704.22 Growth of Natural Gas Consumption in the United States 714.23 Forecast of Natural Gas Consumption through 2025 734.24 Natural Gas Supply and Reserves 734.3 Natural Gas Commitment for Electric Power Generation 754.4 Sustainability of Natural Gas as an Energy Resource 774.5 Nonfossil Energy Resources 804.51 Growth of Alternative (Nonfossil) Energy Use 804.52 Forecast of Nonfossil Energy Supply 814.6 Summary 82References 835 Environmental Impact of Energy Consumption 845.0 Historical Perspective 845.1 Basics of Environmental Impact 855.11 Relationship between Magnitude and Severity 865.12 Consequences of Environmental Threat 865.13 A Hypothetical Example of Magnitude-Severity Analysis 875.2 The Saga of the Greenhouse Effect 905.21 Components of the Saga 915.3 Local Air Pollution from Automobile Exhaust 1015.31 Environmental Impact of Smog 1035.32 Nitrogen Oxides in Photochemical ‘‘Smog’’ 1045.33 Magnitude-Severity Aspects of Nitrogen Oxides 1065.4 Value of Air Quality Improvement in Transportation 1065.5 Some Data for the Los Angeles Air Basin 1085.6 Summary 109References 1096 The Nuclear Energy Era 1116.0 Historical Perspective 1116.1 Basic Elements of Nuclear Science 1126.11 The Atomic Nucleus 1136.12 Isotopic Composition and Abundance 1136.13 Atomic Mass 1146.14 Equivalence of Mass and Energy 1156.15 Binding Energy 1166.16 Nuclear Stability 1186.17 Types of Radioactive Decay 1196.18 Properties of Radionuclides 1206.2 Basic Elements of Nuclear Power 1216.21 Nuclear Fission 1226.22 Available Energy from Uranium Fuel 1236.23 Nuclear Power Reactors 1256.24 The Light-Water Uranium Fuel Cycle 1266.25 Generation IV Nuclear Reactors 1296.26 Nuclear Safety 1306.27 Nuclear Waste 1316.3 The Oklo Natural Nuclear Reactors on Earth 1326.4 Thermonuclear Fusion 1336.5 Summary 135References 1357 Renewable Energy Resources 1377.0 Renewable Energy 1377.01 Types of Renewable Energy 1377.02 Consumption of Renewable Energy 1387.1 Hydroelectric Power 1407.2 Solar Energy 1427.21 The Solar Constant 1447.22 Solar Energy ‘‘Reserves’’ 1457.23 Solar Electricity 1467.3 Wind Energy 1507.31 Wind Power Rate 1537.32 Wind Turbine Conversion Efficiency 1547.33 The Wind Energy Resource 1567.34 Estimated Cost of Wind Power 1567.4 Biomass Energy 1587.41 The Solar Biomass Resource 1597.42 Biomass Conversion Processes 1607.43 Environmental Aspects of Bioenergy Fuels 1617.5 Other Renewable Resources 1637.51 Tidal Energy 1637.52 Geothermal Energy 1647.6 Summary 166References 1678 Hydrogen as an Energy Carrier 1698.0 Historical Perspective 1698.01 Physical Nature of Hydrogen 1708.02 Chemical Nature of Hydrogen 1718.03 Energetics of Hydrogen 1738.1 Hydrogen and Electricity as Parallel Energy Carriers 1738.11 Why Hydrogen? 1738.12 Competitive Uses for Hydrogen 1748.2 The Hydrogen Energy Fuel Cycle 1758.21 Hydrogen Production 1768.21a A Wee-Bit of Electrochemistry 1778.22 Hydrogen Storage 1888.23 Distribution of Hydrogen 1918.24 End Uses for Hydrogen Fuel 1928.25 Cost Factors of Hydrogen Fuel 1948.3 Summary 196References 1989 Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel 2009.0 Historical Perspective 2009.01 Hydrogen Fuel in Aviation 2009.02 Hydrogen Fuel in Marine Technology 2019.1 Hydrogen Fuel Cells in Vehicle Transportation 2029.11 Just What Is a Fuel Cell? 2029.12 A Wee-Bit of Thermodynamics 2049.13 Aspects of Hydrogen as a Transportation Fuel 2079.14 Hydrogen Fuel Vehicles by Application Type 2089.2 Hydrogen Fuel-Cell Vehicles 2099.21 Characteristics of Alternative Fuels for Fuel Cells 2119.22 Methanol as a Fuel for Fuel Cells 2129.23 Natural Gas as a Transportation Fuel 2139.3 What More Is Needed? 2149.4 Summary 215References 21610 The Hydrogen Fuel Era 21710.0 Perspective on an Era 21710.1 Potential for Air Quality Improvement 21810.11 Emission Standards 21810.12 Factors That Affect Vehicle Emissions 22010.13 History of California Emission Standards 22110.2 Modeling Health Benefit from Hydrogen Fuel Transportation 22210.21 Model Development for the Three-City Hydrogen Air Quality Study 22310.22 The Metropolitan Tokyo Air Quality Study 22610.3 Electric Energy Requirement for Hydrogen Fuel 23010.31 Extrapolation of Historical Transportation Fuel Data to 2010 23110.32 Growth of Demand for Hydrogen Fuel and Electric Energy: 2010–2050 23410.4 Prospects for the Future of a Sustainable Energy Supply 23610.41 Potential Distribution of Energy Resources 23810.42 Possibilities to Resolve the Impasse 24010.5 Wrap-Up 24210.6 Summary 242References 242

"…makes for an excellent introductory text on a subject whose importance is sure to last well into the future." (Civil Engineering, 5/2006)