African American Voices

Leslie Brown is Associate Professor of History at Williams College. An award-winning author and editor, her books include Upbuilding Black Durham: Gender, Class, and Black Community Development in the Jim Crow South (2008), which won the Organization of American Historians' 2009 Frederick Jackson Turner Award. Brown also co-edited Living with Jim Crow: African American Women and Memories of the Segregated South (2010), which was awarded the 2011 Oral History Association Book Award.

• List of Illustrations ixSeries Editors’ Preface xAcknowledgments xiiIntroduction 1Chapter 1 Freedom, 1865–1881 81 Black Ministers Meet with Representatives of the Federal Government, January 1865 92 Frederick Douglass Argues for Black Suffrage, April 1865 123 Jourdon Anderson Writes to His Old Master, 1865 154 Harriet Simril Testifies Before a Congressional Committee, South Carolina, 1871 185 Resolutions of the National Civil Rights Convention, 1873 216 The Exodusters, 1878 227 Black Washerwomen Demand a Living Wage, 1866 and 1881 24Chapter 2 Upbuilding, 1893–1910 281 Ida B. Wells Speaks Out Against Lynching in the South, 1893 302 Booker T. Washington Speaks on Race at Atlanta, 1895 343 The National Association of Colored Women, 1897 and 1898 384 The Negro National Anthem, 1900 and 1905 445 Photographs from the Paris Exposition, 1900 466 From W. E. B. Du Bois, The Souls of Black Folk, 1903 477 Black Leaders Disagree with Booker T. Washington: The Niagara Movement, 1905 528 Jack Johnson, 1910 56Chapter 3 Migration, 1904–1919 591 Voices from The Independent, 1904 and 1912 602 Letters of Negro Migrants, 1916–1917 683 The East St. Louis Riot, 1917 724 Why African Americans Left the South, 1919 77Chapter 4 Determination, 1917–1925 851 W. E. B. Du Bois on African Americans and World War I, 1918 and 1919 872 Poet Claude McKay Sets a New Tone, 1919 903 Emmett J. Scott Reflects on “What the Negro Got Out of the War,” 1919 904 Program of the NAACP, 1919 945 Marcus Garvey Outlines the Rights of Black Peoples, 1920 996 Cyril V. Briggs Merges Race Consciousness with Class Consciousness, 1922 1067 Langston Hughes on Being Black in America, 1925 1098 Amy Jacques Garvey Calls on Women to Lead, 1925 110Chapter 5 Resistance, 1927–1939 1141 The Scottsboro Boys Write to the Workers of the World, 1932 1152 Angelo Herndon Joins the Communist Party, 1934 1173 Ella Baker and Marvel Cooke Report on “The Bronx Slave Market,” 1935 1244 Richard Wright Observes a Black Response to Joe Louis’ Victory, 1935 1265 The Southern Negro Youth Congress on Freedom, Equality, and Opportunity, 1937 1296 The Coordinating Committee for Employment, New York, 1938 1317 Marian Anderson at the Lincoln Memorial, 1939 133Chapter 6 Resolve, 1941–1952 1361 The March on Washington Movement, 1941 1382 The “Double V” Campaign, 1942 1423 A Black Army Chaplain Protests the Treatment of Black Soldiers, 1944 142Contents vii4 Pauli Murray on Student Protests in Washington, DC, 1944 1475 The Civil Rights Congress Charges the US with Genocide, 1951 1516 African Americans Petition the President and the American Delegation to the United Nations, 1952 158Chapter 7 Discontent, 1953–1959 1651 Thurgood Marshall Reargues Brown v. Board of Education, 1953 1672 The Montgomery Bus Boycott, 1955 1713 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Writes on Non-Violence, 1957 1744 Robert F. Williams Advocates Armed Self-Defense, 1959 177Chapter 8 Revolt, 1960–1963 1841 Young Activists Form the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC), 1960 1862 Ella Baker Reports on the Founding of SNCC, 1960 1873 Robert Moses Writes from Jail in Magnolia, Mississippi, 1961 1884 The Freedom Rides, 1961 1895 Diane Nash Recalls the Early Student Movement, 1960–1961 1916 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Writes a Letter from Birmingham Jail, 1963 1977 The March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, 1963 206Chapter 9 Power, 1964–1966 2101 Malcolm X Reflects on the Approaches African Americans Must Use, 1964 2112 Fannie Lou Hamer Testifies on Behalf of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party, 1964 2183 Bayard Rustin Considers the Future of the Movement, 1965 2214 Stokely Carmichael Explains Black Power, 1966 227Chapter 10 Revolution, 1966–1977 2341 The Black Panther Party Articulates a Platform, 1966 2352 Rev. Dr. Martin Luther King, Jr., Opposes the War in Vietnam, 1967 2383 The Poor People’s Campaign, 1968 2434 The Black Panther Party Convenes a Revolutionary People’s Constitutional Convention, 1970 2455 Gil Scott-Heron Warns: “The Revolution Will Not Be Televised,” 1971 2506 The Combahee River Collective Statement Explains Black Feminism, 1977 252Chapter 11 Crosscurrents, 1982–2001 2611 Activists Call for Americans to Break Ties with South Africa, 1980 2622 Toxic Wastes and Race in the United States, 1987 2663 Jesse Jackson Rouses the Democratic National Convention, Atlanta, GA, July 19, 1988 2714 African American Women in Defense of Ourselves, 1991 2785 Maxine Waters Explains the Causes of Urban Crises to Congress, 1992 2806 The Million Man March, 1995 2827 Angela Davis Describes the Prison Industrial Complex, 1995 2848 The Hip-Hop Summit Action Network, 2001 289Chapter 12 Paradox, 2005–Present 2931 New Orleans Mayor Ray Nagin Addresses His City on Martin Luther King Day, 2006 2952 Barack Obama Believes in “A More Perfect Union,” 2008 2973 Julian Bond Reflects on Race and History in America, 2011 307Index 316